
oass H Fa 7 7 6 

Book^kL 

OoipghtN?_ 



COFKKICHT DEPOSIT. 



OTHER BOOKS OF THE SAME 
PUBLISHERS 

PRACTICAL 
EXPORTING 

By B.'Olney Hough. 

539 pp., 39 documentary forms. 6x9. Cloth. 

Tells how to get and handle export trade, 
written especially for the manufacturer, the 
exporter and the student, by an authority on 
the subject in general. A most practical book 
on all matters of office and shipping practice. 

EXPORTER'S GAZETTEER 
OF FOREIGN MARKETS 

789 pp., maps and charts. 6x9. Clotb. 
Compiled and edited by Lloyd R. Morris, 
Research Editor, American Exporter. 

A condensed survey of the world's markets 
and industries published for the use of manu- 
facturers, exporters, bankers, shipping and 
allied trades. Presents in readily accessible 
form detailed and statistical information about 
every foreign market. 



EXPORT TRADE 
DIRECTORY 

Published annually. 



6x9. Cloth. 



A complete list of the export commission 
houses, foreign buyers, manufacturers' export 
agents, foreign exchange banks and bankers, 
marine insurance companies, export truckmen, 
foreign freight forwarders, etc., in all the prin- 
cipal United States ports; also foreign Consu- 
lates in the United States, American Consulates 
abroad, etc. 



EXPORT PACKING 

A Guide to the Methods Employed by 
Successful Shippers 



By C. C. MARTIN 

WITH CHAPTERS BY 

D. T. ABERCROMBIE, FORMERLY LT.-COL. QUARTERMASTER CORPS, U. S. ARMY; 
H. N. KNOWLTON, FORMERLY CAPTAIN ORDNANCE DEPARTMENT, 
U. S. ARMY; M. C. FITZ GERALD, MANAGER OF TRANS- 
PORTATION, GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY 



AMERICAN EXPORTER 

THE JOHNSTON EXPORT PUBLISHING CO. 

PENN TERMINAL BUILDING 

370 SEVENTH AVENUE 

NEW YORK CITY 

Boston, Philadelphia, Cleveland, Detroit, Chicago, 

St. Louis, San Francisco 

1921 



^° 



tf 6 ^ 



Copyright, 1921, 
By THE JOHNSTON EXPORT PUBLISHING CO. 

PENN TERMINAL BUILDING 

370 Seventh Avenue, New York City 

u. s. A. 



Press of 

J. J. Little & Ives Company 

New York, U. S. A. 



FEB >2t321 
©CU608334 



TO 

HARRISON C. LEWIS 

WITH 

FRIENDSHIP AND ESTEEM 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Preface 1 



CHAPTER I 



The Problem 



CHAPTER II 

What Export Merchants Say About Packing . . 19 

CHAPTER III 

The Construction of Boxes, Crates and Bales . . 48 

By H. N. Knowlton 

CHAPTER IV 

Practical Notes on Export Shipping .... 85 

By M. C. Fitz Gerald 

CHAPTER V 

Official Specifications — Expert Instructions . . 115 

CHAPTER VI 

Baling Versus Casing 162 

By David T. Abercrombie 

CHAPTER VII 

The Forest Products Laboratory at Madison, Wisconsin 178 

CHAPTER VIII 

Climate and Port Facilities Affecting Manner of 

Packing 201 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER IX 
Pilfering 219 

CHAPTER X 

Customs Regulations as Affecting Packing . . . 231 

CHAPTER XI 

The Packing of Automobiles and Motor Trucks . . 304 

CHAPTER XII 
Shrinking the Package 324 

CHAPTER XIII 
The Packing of Machinery 332 

CHAPTER XIV 
Packing of Agricultural Machinery .... 369 

CHAPTER XV 

The Packing of Hardware, Tools, Automobile Acces- 
sories, Small Apparatus 406 

CHAPTER XVI 

Export Packing of Glass, Glassware and Exceptionally 

Fragile Goods 433 

CHAPTER XVII 
Export Packing of Textiles and Apparel . . . 470 

CHAPTER XVIII 
Packing Furniture ...:.... 489 

CHAPTER XIX 
Packing of Tinned Goods 519 

ii 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER XX 
Export Packing of Goods in Cartons .... 546 

CHAPTER XXI 
Export Shipments in Barrels 562 

CHAPTER XXII 

Export Shipments in Bags, Bundles and without 

Packing 593 

CHAPTER XXIII 
Export Shipments in Drums and Carboys . . . 613 

CHAPTER XXIV 
Export Shipping of Bulky Articles .... 627 

CHAPTER XXV 

Packing Practices in Exporting Sundry Commodities . 643 

CHAPTER XXVI 
Foreign Parcel Post Shipments 681 



in 



PREFACE 

THE plan has been consistently followed throughout 
this book of having the men who are practically 
and intimately in touch with packing problems tell 
the story, whether these men be of national, even inter- 
national reputation, such as Lieut. Colonel David T. 
Abercrombie, Mr. M. C. Fitz Gerald or Captain H. N. 
Knowlton, who have contributed special chapters, or 
whether they be those who are daily in touch with the 
problem in the great and small manufacturing establish- 
ments throughout the land. To a large extent my own 
work has been restricted to that of editor and has con- 
sisted in arranging and assembling the material at hand, 
and I am convinced that any book on packing to be of 
value must necessarily be written in this way. 

My thanks therefore are not alone due to the gentle- 
men who have been good enough to contribute signed 
chapters to this volume, and who have done so, let it be 
said, in a spirit of generous desire to assist foreign 
trade ; my obligation is equally great to those public spir- 
ited men and organizations who have placed freely at 
my disposal not alone a wealth of photographic mate- 
rial, but have also given me the benefit of their best 
critical judgment both in reference to the packing prob- 
lem in general and to their own individual work in par- 
ticular. 

There is a great deal of material that might have been 
included in this volume which I have been compelled to 
omit because of mere physical limitations, for it would 
not have been at all difficult to have collected sufficient 
data to make two books of this size. However, such ad- 
ditional material would have been in certain instances 
a repetition of what we have, and I do not believe that 
any essential phase of the problem has been omitted. 
At the same time in addition to the experimental and 

l 



2 PREFACE 

other work mentioned here, recognition should be given 
of the developments that are taking place through the 
efforts of such organizations as the National Canners' 
Association, the National Association of Egg Case and 
Egg Case Filler Manufacturers, the National Associa- 
tion of Box Manufacturers, the Mellon Institute of In- 
dustrial Research of the University of Pittsburgh, the 
Glass Container Association of America, the American 
Society for Testing Materials, The Container Club and 
other groups. In a number of cases, however, the in- 
vestigations have to do purely with containers for do- 
mestic shipment, with which this volume does not con- 
cern itself, while inclusion of more matter referring to 
export would have made this book exceed all reasonable 
bounds. 

Attention should be called to the fact that in a number 
of instances the exigencies of good bookmaking as well as 
the number of photographs in relation to the quantity 
of text, have made it impossible to place photographs 
facing corresponding descriptive text matter. This is 
notably the case with the photographs illustrating Mr. 
Fitz Gerald's article, and it has been further necessary 
to place a number of these photographs toward the front 
of the book. However, as page references appear in all 
cases it is not believed that this is a material consid- 
eration. 

C. C. Martin. 

New York, December 1, 1920. 



EXPORT PACKING 



CHAPTER I 
THE PROBLEM 

THERE are a good many of our exporters, un- 
fortunately too many, who are inclined to look 
upon the problems of export packing in that smug 
fashion which reduces them to the position of no problems 
at all. Indeed it seems to be a habit nowadays to con- 
sider the export packing situation as something that has 
been well solved, leaving us free to move along to the dis- 
cussion of more pressing and more profitable subjects. 
Export packing, in other words, sometimes seems to be 
regarded as a difficulty that no longer exists and one that 
no longer requires study or consideration. 

The statement in the foregoing paragraph is not an 
exaggeration. To mention export packing to a large, 
and, it seems, constantly increasing number of exporters, 
is to mention a subject that has been worn threadbare ; 
that belongs to the kindergarten of exporting, and that 
should give way to more constructive and fundamental 
problems. However, without in any way attempting to 
be radical or even original, I believe that export packing 
is one of the most fundamental of export problems. It 
may even be put in a category with export banking and 
export selling in point of importance. 

Why There is a Problem. — It is true that the man in 
some other part of the world than our own is interested 
in terms of credits. He is interested in the quality of 
goods, conditions of delivery and the many other factors 
that go to make good service and good exporting. But 
it appears that in a sense all of these things rest on the 
character of the export package. The foregoing factors 

3 



4 EXPORT PACKING 

lose their importance and value if the goods received are 
not received in good shape. A machine may be the mar- 
velous machine; it may effect economies of all sorts; 
it may be just the machine indicated in the particular 
case. But if it arrives broken ; if it is necessary to wait 
months for new parts, much of the good will of the cus- 
tomer is going to be lost. However, this is merely one 
phase of the packing situation ; for packing must not only 
be good packing, it must be economical packing; it must 
conform to the peculiar custom-house conditions ; it must 
be adapted to a wide variety of special factors which are 
too frequently either ignored or unknown on the part of 
many of the export fraternity. 

Purpose of this Book. — The purpose of this book is not 
to solve all the problems of export packing. That would 
not be a purpose ; it would be a presumption. The pur- 
pose is to discuss the fundamental principles of export 
packing; to suggest certain rules which if observed will 
produce the proper export package, and to present a suf- 
ficient number of concrete examples to serve as guides 
both in the administrative office and in the actual packing 
shop. 

The writer does not mean here to suggest that our 
export packing in general is bad. He does not mean to 
suggest that a large percentage of it is bad. American 
export packing is generally good, although much of it is 
not the packing produced either by the English, French 
or Belgians, and I do believe that in a good many in- 
stances our export packing could be greatly improved. 

Evidence from New York. — For the curious in this 
matter a trip around the docks of New York is illuminat- 
ing. Not so long ago the writer saw two large export 
packages being hauled along Fulton Street, the destina- 
tion marks showing Amsterdam. These cases were about 
4x5x4 feet in size and weighed approximately 800 kilos 
each. The wood used was three-quarter inch stuff and 
there was no strapping of any description on either case. 
One of the boards on the top of one of the cases had 
loosened even before being put aboard ship, and was flap- 



THE PROBLEM 5 

ping from side to side with the movement of the truck. 
We can well imagine how these goods reached Amster- 
dam, even if re-coopered before loading on steamer, and 
we may also believe that the manufacturer of these 
goods thought he was providing an adequate case. At 
least it may be assumed that he did. But whatever the 
belief on the part of the manufacturer, the fact is that 
he was not fair to his customer, he was not fair to him- 
self, and most important of all he was not fair to that 
national prestige which it should be the aim and desire 
of every exporter to foment and develop. 

A New Spirit Abroad. — Fortunately, there is a new 
spirit abroad in this question of export packing. To- 
day the man who is considering constructive export work 
is also considering constructive export packing. The late 
war had much to do with this new viewpoint. The prob- 
lem of the government in its overseas work was not only 
colossal, it was also one of extreme urgency. On one side 
we had millions of fighting men who had to be fed and 
clothed and provisioned in the smallest possible space 
of time. On the other we had a vast quantity of goods 
to be shipped in a relatively small number of vessels. 
This condition developed remarkable skill and resource 
in designing and constructing the export package ; and it- 
concentrated attention on packing, as such, as had never 
been the case before. The result was that really re- 
markable things were done, not only in the sense of ade- 
quate packing, but also in that of economical packing. 

With this as a start, packing research as an integral 
part of export technique is rapidly being developed. The 
men in control of new combinations of capital or products 
see that the transportation of goods is as important as 
the. production of goods. Space saved is money saved; 
goods that arrive in the same shape as they left the fac- 
tory are an extremely valuable business asset. 

This new development is one of the most encouraging 
signs of the times in exporting. It promises to remove a 
very large and important obstacle to the progress of 
export trade. It is to be hoped that by the very force 



6 EXPORT PACKING 

of competition it will also lead certain very well satis- 
fied manufacturers and exporters to mend their ways, 
and that it will force them to send packages abroad that 
are a credit both to the contents of the packages and to 
the country of origin. 

The Export Problem is Special.— The experience a 
shipper has gained in packing for the domestic market 
will not always serve him in the foreign field. At home 
we are dealing with conditions of astonishing simplicity 
compared to those abroad. Indeed a man who is working 
for foreign trade should, in a measure, wipe off his 
domestic experience slate. What are some of the con- 
siderations that should enter into the equation? 

Let Us Follow the Goods. — Let us take one portion of 
the world, for example, the Argentine. If I had a first 
order to be shipped to the Argentine and it was my in- 
tention to go into the export business seriously, I should 
do a great many things before I let that first shipment 
be packed. I should get first of all a good atlas and I 
would see where this country of the Argentine is located. 
I would make inquiries and determine just what route or 
routes these goods of mine, that bore my name or my 
factory imprint, were going to take. I should consider 
carefully the name of the city in which the consignee 
lived. Is it a port, or is it a point in the interior? If a 
port, how are the goods taken off the ship! Are they 
landed directly on the dock or are they transhipped by 
lighter? If an interior point, how do my goods get to 
this interior point? Are they shipped and handled by 
modern methods, over modern railroads, or are they 
transported over mountains and along rivers through 
primitive countries by primitive men, with only the 
simplest means for transporting available ? I would give 
considerable study to this question, and only after I had 
thoroughly informed myself would I proceed to take up 
another point. This second point might well be the 
climatic conditions to which my goods would be exposed. 
I know fairly well domestic conditions, but what I need 
to do is to discover what these conditions are abroad. 



TEE PROBLEM 7 

And so I watch these goods in fancy as they are 
loaded on the boat in New York, and I see them pass 
down the Atlantic on their long voyage to the Argentine. 
I consult books and obtain information, and I learn that 
my goods pass through the tropics; that they may be 
stowed close to boilers; and that consequently they 
should be protected against heat, in case they are sensi- 
tive to this influence. Likewise my goods must be pro- 
tected against moisture, for the holds of vessels are none 
too dry, and an open hatch may let in a good portion of 
ocean brine. 

Special Instructions. — On this first order I receive, I 
notice that the specification of the packing of the goods 
is different, in its arrangement, from that I am accus- 
tomed to follow for my domestic trade. I am also told in 
this order to limit the size and weight of the package and 
to specify the gross, tare and net weight in kilos. I am 
also given certain instructions with reference to invoices 
and other papers. This is novel, but after careful in- 
vestigation I find that every one of the instructions has 
an intimate relation to the conditions in the Argentine, 
and that if I fail to follow any one of them it will mean 
loss of money or inconvenience to my client. 

This is a simple statement of a situation which con- 
fronts every exporter during each working day. The 
writer does not wish to convey the impression that ex- 
port business is beset with difficulties that more than bal- 
ance the advantages of export trade. But what he does 
wish to urge is that export business is a special business 
which should be treated conscientiously. We have at the 
present time the greatest opportunity that has ever been 
presented any nation. With little or no effort on our part 
unavoidable necessity has brought the world to our 
doors, and by proper conduct we can develop and main- 
tain a great export business that will be of vast impor- 
tance in the future history of our country. But at the 
present time we are being tried and we are most certainly 
being tested. Let us hope that the good behavior con- 
tinues that is noticeable in certain quarters. 



8 EXPORT PACKING 

The New Viewpoint in Trade. — During the last few 
years there has taken place a radical change in the view- 
point of the average manufacturer and merchant. It is 
no longer a question of merely selling goods ; it is prin- 
cipally important to keep the goods sold, once they are 
sold, and to sell more goods. The predatory merchant or 
manufacturer is rapidly passing away. Into his room 
there is stepping the man who builds his organization on 
service, and this word in its broad and, let it be said, 
modern acceptation, is the foundation of modern 
business. 

In this connection I cannot do better than quote a 
portion of the admirable monthly bulletin, published by 
The National City Bank of New York, and written by 
Mr. George E. Eoberts. In the issue of February, 1919, 
Mr. Eoberts cogently remarks : 

' i No investment is worth anything, or can have stand- 
ing in any financial market, unless it is based upon a 
value arising from public service. It must be shown to 
meet a social need in a manner that will secure at least a 
share of the popular patronage, and every new business 
is expected to justify itself by showing that it can render 
a new or superior service. Old investments lose their 
value if new ones render better service, and there is the 
familiar spectacle of long-established business houses 
passing into decay and oblivion because unable to keep 
up in service with younger houses in the field. The study 
of every business organization and every individual en- 
titled to any position in the business world is how to im- 
prove the service it is rendering to the public. Any man 
who has a new idea of practical usefulness to the public 
has a career assured. Emerson said that if any man 
could make a mouse-trap better than all others the world 
would make a beaten track to his door." 

Export Packing is Export Service. — Good export 
packing is nothing more than an extension of service, and 
as Mr. Eoberts points out, the house that gives the best 
service is the one which will succeed. For proper pack- 
ing means nothing more than conscientious consideration 



THE PROBLEM 9 

of the interests of the ultimate customer, with an equal 
admixture of consideration for the interests of the man- 
ufacturer who is trying to win the good-will and the 
trade of this ultimate customer. There are too many 
shippers whose effort seems to he to spend as little money 
and time as possible on the packing of their goods, while 
in point of fact they should try to see how much money 
and time they can profitably spend on the protecting en- 
velope of the goods in question. There can be no doubt 
that a vast amount of valuable export business is lost 
by careless packing, a condition which at once convinces 
the customer that the shipper either is not interested 
in the goods, or has not taken to heart in the least the 
interests of the purchaser. 

A Common Impression.— As far as possible the writer 
wishes to avoid in this book any suggestion of unmerited 
criticism, but throughout the world there seems to be 
an impression that the American manufacturer is always 
willing to take an order, but that he does not concern 
himself unduly as to when he is going to ship the goods 
or as to the condition in which they are going to arrive 
at their ultimate destination. To offset this impression 
the first consideration on receiving an order from abroad, 
and after its due acceptance, should be to appreciate 
the fact that a man thousands of miles away has placed 
in our hands a trust of no inconsiderable magnitude, and 
that we should faithfully and honestly fulfill that trust. 
We should see that the goods arrive as quickly as pos- 
sible at the foreign port, and above all should we see that 
when they do arrive they may at once be put on sale or 
in use, as the case may be. It should be a point of honor 
with every shipper to work for the benefit and business 
convenience of the foreign client. 

Cheap Packing is False Economy. — To-day the Ameri- 
can market is flooded with all sorts of packing devices 
which in too many cases commend themselves solely be- 
cause of their cheapness. Cheap packing has never yet 
proved anything but a false economy. The foreign man- 
ufacturer, in general, has apparently adopted as a prin- 



10 EXPORT PACKING 

ciple that of making his package as good as his product, 
while in the effort to constantly lower costs the American 
does not neglect to take a slice off his packing. But it 
should never be lost sight of that the foreign buyer is 
not interested in this false economy, for he will not hesi- 
tate to pay for good packing. The writer has known in- 
stances in which this has been insisted on because of lack 
of confidence in the ordinary packing of the average 
manufacturer. When a foreign house gives special in- 
structions in reference to packing, it is not caprice nor 
any rare geometrical or artistic sense that originates 
these instructions. The importer knows what the condi- 
tions in his country are, and his packing instructions are 
gauged entirely by these conditions. Every set of in- 
structions for the packing of export goods should be 
followed by the manufacturer absolutely to the letter; 
and if the instructions are not given, it is the duty of 
our exporters to inform themselves of the conditions at 
the foreign point and adapt the packing to those con- 
ditions. 

The Export Packing Triangle. — The export packing 
problem is frequently complicated by virtue of the fact 
that the manufacturer does not always pack his own 
goods for export. This condition usually arises when the 
manufacturer has his goods packed at seaboard by a 
house making a specialty of this business, or when the 
manufacturer is not the actual consignor of the goods. 
In the first instance, the decision to have the goods 
packed by other than the producing organization, may 
be due to the fact that some other concern has a better 
equipment for packing, or it may be that the manufac- 
turer does not wish to be bothered with the details of 
export packing. It is entirely proper under such condi- 
tions to have the work done by some other house, and 
there are a number of concerns which are well equipped 
to give good service. 

The second instance comprises that large export busi- 
ness which is handled by a second party. It may be a 
commission house, it may be a purchasing agent or it may 




Courtesy of General Electric Co. 

(1) Casing a Large Induction Motor. 

A large motor ivith extended base and bearing. Note lining of cotton covered, 
waterproof paper, bolting to sMd, blocking longitudinally and laterally, bracing 
and slotting for skids as fully explained in text. Note also ventilating holes 
covered with wire screens. 




Courtesy of General Electric Co. 
(2) Completed Case for Large Induction Motor. 
Note ventilating holes provided to prevent accumulation of moisture by con- 
densation and relieve air pressure on inside of case. These holes are covered 
on the mside by wire screen. Photograph taken before case was marked 

11 




(3) 



Courtesy of General Electric Co. 
Skidding Stator Element of Synchronous Converter. 



Note that skid is lined with cotton covered waterproof paper. Note that 
bearing part of skid having contact with finished part of machine is coated 
with rust preventative. 




Courtesy of General Electric Co, 
(4) Stator Element Partially Boxed. 

Note corner posts as support against collapsing. Eyelets at top are for 
convenience in lifting and are removed before final closing of case and fastened 
to inside of case. 

12 



THE PROBLEM 13 

be any one of the many different organizations or in- 
dividuals acting in this or that capacity. But right here 
is where originates a great deal of our faulty packing, 
and there is no doubt that vastly more comes into exist- 
ence at this point than in the case of a manufacturer 
dealing direct with a foreign customer and packing the 
goods in the factory of origin. 

Perils of the Triangle. — It may be that the manufac- 
turer is doing his very best to branch out in foreign 
trade. He may be packing his goods suitably for ship- 
ment to seaboard, but it frequently happens that these 
domestic packages are not changed in the least by the 
actual exporter, and there is consequent loss both for the 
ultimate purchaser and the manufacturer himself. On 
the other hand the exporter of the goods may have a 
carefully prepared order form on which is described in 
detail the export package. The goods are shipped by the 
manufacturer, but absolutely no attention is paid to the 
instructions in regard to packing. When the goods come 
to the port of shipment they are not repacked and are 
sent abroad in their fragile domestic coverings. 

This is not a difficult problem to solve ; it is merely a 
question of having an agreement in reference to respon- 
sibility. Any purchasing agent or commission house 
should have a definite understanding with their sources of 
supply as to who is going to do the packing. If the manu- 
facturer, well and good ; if the commission house, then an 
organization must be built up which can take care of this 
packing problem. This is no exceptional situation, as 
there are a number of commission houses in New York, 
not to mention other ports, that have very efficient and 
able packing departments. To these departments all 
their goods are brought and repacked for export. 

To be sure there is always going to be defective pack- 
ing, and the foregoing paragraph has indicated where 
most of this defective packing will originate. There will 
always be the intervention of the third party, and it is 
probable that in many cases this third party will be more 
interested in the cash against documents than he is in 



14 EXPORT PACKING 

how the goods are packed. But be this as it may, there 
is still a wide field for improvement in direct shipments 
from the factory. 

Pilfering. — Pilfering is a common hazard to which 
shipments are liable in transport, and many ingenious 
methods have been adopted to protect goods that are ex- 
posed to this danger. But still it continues to exist and 
many a foreign importer, be he branch manager of an 
export house or native of the country, has received 
cases apparently in good condition only to find upon ex- 
amination that all or a portion of the contents have dis- 
appeared. The goods particularly exposed to pilfering 
are merchandise the units of which are small, such as 
canned goods of every kind, wines, liquors, boots and 
shoes, articles of clothing for men and women, stationery 
of all kinds, toilet articles, hardware, hats, and so on. 
Many schemes have been tried to meet the evil ; tongued 
and grooved lumber, iron straps, safety clips of various 
kinds, etc. The use of a wire drawn tightly about the 
middle of a box and securely fastened into the body of 
the box has been recommended, but it frequently hap- 
pens that wood not thoroughly dry is used for the cases 
and when the wood shrinks naturally the wire loosens. 
This is a problem that may be difficult of perfect solu- 
tion. Individual ingenuity will, in many cases, however, 
accomplish much, and it is probable that each exporter 
can find a remedy applicable to his especial needs. 

Proper Marking of Great Importance. — Proper mark- 
ing of a shipment is of as much importance as proper 
packing. If the marking is indistinct, easily obliterated, 
or improperly placed it may cause great trouble and an- 
noyance, without considering the possibility of loss and 
months of delay in receipt of the shipment. In fact, it 
may be stated generally that improper marking or in- 
correct marking causes just as much loss as improper 
packing, and this occurs even in instances where consid- 
erable care is used in marking and checking cases. The 
writer knows several fairly prominent export houses that 
would give a good deal to be absolutely sure that there 



THE PROBLEM 15 

was never a mistake made in the marking of their cases. 

The first requisite for any class of marking is legibil- 
ity and permanency under all conditions to which the 
package may be subjected. This does not alone refer to 
the paint used in making the mark, but also to the place 
on the package where the mark is put. There is a great 
deal of complaint on this score in the matter of baled 
goods, and with this class of shipments the mark should 
never be placed on the bagging nor on a tag tied to the 
bag. Obviously both of these methods are insecure, and 
the marking should be done by using a plate of metal 
which in turn is secured to the iron bands around the bale. 
This will insure permanency, considering this word from 
every angle. 

Assuming that there is legible and permanent mark- 
ing, the difficulty is by no means overcome, as a great 
opportunity for trouble due to incorrect or improper 
marking still exists. Errors of this sort may be made in 
a great variety of ways. For example, it is very common 
in export shipments to find one or more letters enclosed 
in some geometrical figure such as a diamond or a circle. 
In this instance it would be a most decided error to leave 
off the geometrical device, just as serious as to leave off 
the letters themselves. In other instances we find errors 
in the letters themselves. For example, the letters may be 
"C-M", but on the case they are made to appear "M-C". 
Frequently one letter should appear over another letter 
and in the marks we find the position of the two letters 
reversed. Then again the marks may be legible when 
viewed close up but indistinct when seen at a distance be- 
cause of the small size of the characters. It also happens, 
with too great frequency, that the mark is surrounded by 
other marks or even by advertising matter to such an 
extent that it is very difficult to sort out the shipment. 

Marking Small Shipments. — In shipping small pack- 
ages it is frequently the practice to tie a number of boxes 
together by iron straps, strips of wood or some other 
material and then to mark the top box, but this is most 
decidedly ill-advised. These composite shipments fre- 



/ 



16 EXPORT PACKING 

quently come apart, and of a lot of six boxes one only 
may have the mark and the other five lack any sign what- 
ever of identification. 

Errors also frequently take place in the numbering 
of the various parts of a shipment, and great care must 
be observed in this numbering. Often there is duplica- 
tion, and in at least one country, Salvador, goods bearing 
duplicate numbers are considered contraband and are 
liable to a fine of 25 per cent of the duties. Incorrect 
marking is no subject of levity to the importer. In every 
instance he may be subject to fines and in almost all in- 
stances he will be subject to delay in the receipt of his 
goods, and he is fortunate if he does not lose his goods 
altogether. 

Stencil not Brush Should be Used. — Marks and num- 
bers on a case should always be stenciled and never put 
on with a brush. The importance of this recommenda- 
tion lies in the fact that a stenciled mark or number is 
well made and legible, whereas the average brush artist 
in factory or packing room is not remarkable for the 
work he does. It should also be remembered that caution 
marks on a case are of no value if they are not in the 
language of the country of destination, and it is much 
better to keep the case clean than to cover it with all 
sorts of useless decoration. The same applies to adver- 
tising matter, for not only does this in many instances 
conceal the important marks and numbers, but it also 
gives a very valuable guide to thieves on the boat, wharf, 
or in the custom house. A case which cries to the world 
through advertising pasters that it contains good things 
to eat, shoes, or articles of a similar kind, does not have 
to be opened by the pilferer to discover the character 
of the contents. He is saved all this preliminary trouble 
and can proceed to go to work without the least delay. 

Where to Put the Marks. — If possible, a case should 
have marks on all four sides, top and bottom. This would 
not be a waste of time, either, but in the majority of in- 
stances this is not possible. When it cannot be done, then 
put the marks on as many sides of the package as possible 



TEE PROBLEM 17 

and be careful to place the whole of the mark together 
instead of scattering parts of it all over the side of the 
package. The marks on a case are checked by the dock 
employees; the customs manifest must show them, and 
so must the bill of lading, and it may be necessary to 
inspect them at other times. The value, therefore, of 
having the marks grouped compactly so that they can be 
seen at a glance and without difficulty is obvious, and so 
doing entails no more work than putting them on dif- 
ferent parts of the case. There is one last thought, and 
that is, do not use second-hand material for your export 
packages. The saving is practically nil and in many 
instances second-hand cases contain old numbers and 
marks of various kinds, and even with care it is fre- 
quently impossible to obliterate them all. Consequently 
by using this class of material we are not only saving 
little, but are running considerable risk of trouble of all 
sorts for the customer, especially in view of the fact that 
as a rule the resistance has been long since taken out of 
second-hand stuff. 

Many Factors to be Considered. — There are a number 
of factors to be considered in the problem of packing, 
factors which in a sense are fundamental. First is that 
of methods of transportation. Generally it may be stated 
that domestic packing is satisfactory for shipments to 
Canada, but that market almost exhausts the list. The 
chief danger to goods, however, comes in transhipment, 
and wherever goods are transhipped it may be taken for 
granted that unless the packing is adequate there is going 
to be trouble. We come back therefore to the suggestion 
that the manufacturer study the map of, the country to 
which his goods are going, and thus guard against what 
might otherwise be termed the inevitable. 

Climatic conditions may materially affect the char- 
acter of the package, and this observation affords an- 
other opportunity to insist upon a thorough study of 
geography. Conditions at foreign ports may be quite 
unlike port conditions in the home country and should 
receive study. These questions will be dealt with in the 



18 EXPORT PACKING 

following pages and in a special chapter. Another chap- 
ter, too, will deal with the important question of packing 
goods so as to minimize import customs duties in foreign 
countries, and this again brings us to the point of packing 
according to customers' instruction, for both this, and 
packing to facilitate entry through the custom-house, 
amount to the same thing: consideration of the custom- 
er's interests. If the consignee asks that machinery be 
shipped knocked down and in compact form, it is because 
there is some condition of transportation or other im- 
portant consideration that has to be met. If the con- 
signee asks that goods be sent in a series of cases and 
that the shipping documents show what part of the mer- 
chandise is contained in each case, there is no doubt that 
this request is made with good reason. 



CHAPTER II 

WHAT EXPORT MERCHANTS SAY ABOUT 

PACKING 

REPLIES to a questionnaire on the subject of ex- 
periences with the packing of American goods for 
export, addressed while this volume was in prep- 
aration to several hundred export merchants, shipping 
companies and foreign freight forwarders in this country, 
that is to say, companies and firms engaged solely and 
professionally in the export business, resulted in scores 
of replies containing much food for reflection along with 
some serious criticism which, of course, was to be ex- 
pected. An examination and analysis of replies received 
disclosed not a few valuable hints as to desirable prac- 
tices, improvements in present methods and advice of 
real constructive value. They may be accepted as repre- 
sentative of replies which would have been received from 
foreign importers, had time permitted enquiries of them. 
It is believed that excerpts from some of these letters will 
be found of interest and value if reprinted at this point, 
so far as the letters from these export merchants and 
others are couched in general terms. Other excerpts 
have been used elsewhere, notably in chapters referring 
to proper export packing of certain commodities, when 
the letters related specifically to such stated subjects. 

Expokteks' Comments on Packing Pkactices 

The Export Packing Department.— One of the largest 
export merchants shipping to the West Coast of South 
America declares that there is a general lack of geo- 
graphical knowledge among manufacturers who seek 
export business. This merchant believes that the 
average manufacturer is not conversant even with 

19 



20 EXPORT PACKING 

the location of the principal ports and cities, or, 
if it happens that his geographical knowledge ex- 
tends so far, then he does not understand or appreciate 
the physical conditions governing the transportation of 
goods. This merchant therefore urges that any manu- 
facturer who desires to have his goods properly packed 
for export must organize a thoroughly trained packing 
staff, which must in the first place be taught the rudi- 
ments of geography, where cities and ports are located, 
the means of transportation to foreign ports and of in- 
terior transportation in country of destination, and 
finally educated in methods of packing which will mini- 
mize so far as possible likelihood of damage from all 
causes. 

An exporter "of iron and steel products urges that 
manufacturers and export shippers must find means of 
impressing upon the minds of their packing staff the con- 
ditions under which goods are handled in shipping to 
various destinations. He believes that even a visit to 
steamship docks will go far towards showing the treat- 
ment to which cases are subjected in handling from truck 
or lighter or railway car to the steamer. The packer 
must know whether goods find their way to ultimate des- 
tination by muleback, or by what other means of trans- 
portation, and must be taught that packages are handled 
by manual labor at many foreign ports and at others dis- 
charged from steamer to lighter or surf boat and then 
re-handled. 

Another large export house shipping to the West 
Coast of South America urges that manufacturers be 
impressed with the fact that before dispatching ship- 
ments for foreign ports information should be secured 
as to shipping conditions, both in relation to the handling 
of the goods by the steamship companies and as to dis- 
charging conditions at port of destination. This house 
points out that shipments to major ports of Chile and 
Peru can be easily forwarded from New York on steamers 
sailing directly to such ports, whereas, if such shipments 
are forwarded by steamer to Panama, transhipment 




Courtesy of General Electric Co. 
(5) Completed Case for Stator Element. 
Note marking on case where sling cables should be applied. 




Courtesy of General Electric Co. 
(6) Crating the Yoke of a Converter. 
Note that bracing provides protection if crate is thrown on side or end. 

21 




Courtesy of General Electric Co. 

(7) Completed Crate Containing Yoke. 

Crate affords a visual survey of contents and provides reasonable protection 
for semi-fragile material not subject to pilfering. 




Courtesy of General Electric Co. 

(8) Packing of 25 HP Motor. 

Shows method of guarding against shifting of machinery in case. Note 
blocking to prevent side strain and blocking of shaft at ends. Note also bracing 
of top of motor frame. 

22 



WHAT EXPORT MERCHANTS SAY 23 

of a strenuous character is necessitated, entailing a con- 
siderable amount of extra handling which never con- 
tributes to the improvement of export packages when 
arriving at destination. This house further calls atten- 
tion to the fact that a method of packing which might 
be entirely satisfactory for one market, might be just as 
unsatisfactory for another market and that, therefore, 
manufacturers must so standardize their export packing 
as to make it suitable for the most trying conditions. 

The New York office of one of the largest importing 
houses in South America, places the blame for poor ex- 
port packing not on the lack of intelligence among manu- 
facturers but on pure lack of attention and consideration. 
This office states that a common reply from manufac- 
turers who have been asked to supply special packing 
for export is, that the manufacturer does not see why 
packing that is good enough for goods shipped to Brook- 
lyn should not also be good enough for goods intended 
for Constantinople, and that it is quite impossible to 
upset the regular packing routine of the factory. When, 
as not infrequently happens, complaint is received about 
the condition of goods on arrival at destination, manufac- 
turers almost always place the blame on the transporta- 
tion companies. 

A New Orleans export merchant shipping largely to 
Central America, criticizes the men employed to do the 
packing for manufacturers, who have not sufficient inter- 
est even to inquire what export packing means, nor 
the slightest knowledge of the correct meaning of gross, 
legal and net weights, and, furthermore, know nothing 
about and pay less attention to the packing of cases in 
such a way as to reduce the import duties in certain parts 
of Latin America, where such duties are levied on gross 
weight; and no importer in those countries is particu- 
larly delighted at having to pay duties on heavy lumber 
cases. Per contra, this exporter declares that he has 
received goods from manufacturers in a great many dif- 
ferent states, ordered for export, which have arrived 
packed in paper cartons or veneer board crates, a ridicu- 



24 EXPORT PACKING 

Ions proceeding involving repacking and considerable 
extra expense. The engagement of intelligent and re- 
liable men in a manufacturer's export packing depart- 
ment, men who will take an interest in their work, study 
carefully every angle of export packing, is advised as a 
highly profitable investment. 

A member of a firm in Manila, recently visiting New 
York, declared that losses incurred by Philippine im- 
porters because of improper packing or marking of pack- 
ages are insignificant in the case of goods shipped from 
England, and formerly from Germany, as compared with 
the immense loss sustained on shipments from the United 
States because, in his opinion, European shippers realize 
better than American shippers that Manila is more than 
10,000 miles distant. 

Fear Cost of Export Packing. — The same Manila 
merchant referred to in the preceding paragraph, declares 
that importers will gladly pay extra for goods which they 
know will arrive in perfect condition. It would appear 
that there is a great deal too much diffidence among 
American manufacturers, in general, in regard to making 
sufficiently liberal quotations to cover the additional cost 
of special packing and protection for export shipments 
when there is extra expense on this score. This is illus- 
trated in a letter from a prominent exporter to India and 
the Orient in general. He is of the opinion that while 
American manufacturers have adopted a distinctly better 
policy than their English and some other European com- 
petitors, in quoting prices which include all packing 
charges, instead of quoting "packing extra,' ' yet the 
force of competition here in the United States has led 
manufacturers to cheapen their packing in order to reduce 
their quotations on commodities. The result, he thinks, 
is that they fancy they must name equally as low prices 
for export, and in such prices they consider that they 
have not a sufficiently large margin for the superior ex- 
port packing and protection which perhaps they realize 
is necessary. The result is that in some cases the 
ordinary domestic packing is made to do duty for export 



WHAT EXPORT MERCHANTS SAY 25 

shipping, quite too often with disastrous results. It 
would be much better, this exporter advises, if manufac- 
turers would frankly advance their prices and make them 
to cover thoroughly good export packing. This he thinks 
would be better even if a domestic price list is used, which 
may be modified to read to the following effect: "5 per 
cent, additional charged on all export shipments to cover 
increased expense for especially careful and thorough 
boxing and protection." In any event, proper export 
packing must be supplied and, if it costs extra, customers 
may easily be persuaded of the desirability of paying the 
extra charge in order that the merchandise on arrival 
will be intact and in saleable condition. 

The same subject is referred to by a firm of large 
shippers to China and Japan, which states that it never 
has any trouble about packing with large manufacturers 
of experience in exporting, but its troubles invariably lie 
with small manufacturers or those who have never done 
any export business, who too often underestimate the cost 
of proper packing and therefore use skeleton crates 
when solid boxes ought to be employed, or use lumber too 
light to hold the weight of the contents, or cases that are 
badly designed without corner posts or diagonal bracing. 

Extra Costs Versus Economies Effected. — A company 
engaged in exporting to Australasia calls attention to 
the desirability of making a careful comparison as to the 
expense of unusual, very heavy or very costly packing 
with the possible losses which may be incurred in shipping 
in less costly packages. This company urges caution in 
making such a comparison and above all in adopting any 
doubtful practices without a thorough preliminary and 
mutual understanding with customers. None the less, it 
is believed by this company that in some instances it may 
be discovered that losses through frail or very cheap 
packing may not exceed 1 per cent on the value of the 
contents, whereas, what might be considered substantial 
and worthy packing cases might cost 2 per cent or 3 per 
cent on the value. This, of course, can only be deter- 
mined in actual and long continued practice. No manu- 



26 EXPORT PACKING 

f acturer must jump at conclusions and attempt any pack- 
ing which he is not absolutely sure will meet the approval 
of his customer. Similarly, this company declares, a 
comparison of the cost of bales versus cases, or cost of 
barrels versus shipping goods naked — all as compared 
with probable losses from damage on arrival at foreign 
port — should be very carefully and scientifically studied. 

A steel exporter suggests that excess of zeal for sub- 
stantial packages should be restrained by the knowledge 
that on bulky goods, which are freighted at rates per 
cubic foot, an inch or two of extra dimension costs the 
freight rate on another cubic foot of space, so that in 
packing such goods it is necessary to study economy of 
space by cutting down so far as can safely be done on the 
extreme outside dimensions, which may be considerably 
increased by unnecessarily heavy scantling or bracing. 

Merchants shipping to Latin America observe that 
some manufacturers reenforce their cases by wooden 
cleats on all the edges. These merchants frequently find 
that not only do these cleats not render the cases suf- 
ficiently strong, but that this method of reenforcement 
makes necessary an additional ocean freight charge when- 
ever rates are figured on the measurement basis. 

Another firm of exporters to Australia urges the pack- 
ing of cases to economize space so far as possible, because 
of the reduction thus secured in ocean freights and the 
increased profit and satisfaction thus obtained by the 
importer. The warning is given, however, that at the 
same time all due care must be exercised to see that 
goods are packed so as to insure arrival in satisfactory 
condition, which is the essential thing in all export trade 
and must be accomplished even when additional cubic 
measurement entails extra expense. 

The American purchasing agent for a number of 
important enterprises in Central America declares that 
in spite of specific instructions which he has issued as to 
the packing of certain goods, some manufacturers have 
assumed the liberty of shipping those goods without any 
packing whatever. For example, heavy steel pulleys 



WHAT EXPORT MERCHANTS SAY 27 

have thus been shipped, the manufacturer believing them 
strong enough to stand the journey and wishing to save 
the expense of packing, with the result, however, that in 
a good many cases, pulleys and other material thus 
shipped have arrived in perfectly useless condition. 

Packing to Satisfy Customers. — The satisfaction of 
the customer is obviously the first principle in modern 
business, yet disregard of this principle in the case of 
foreign shipments is the subject for innumerable com- 
plaints among the letters from export merchants, ship- 
ping companies and freight forwarders, to which this 
chapter is devoted. There are too many of these com- 
plaints to warrant reprinting here, but the fact is notable 
that the critics attribute the difficulties which they have 
expressed not to any lack of intelligence among manu- 
facturers, but rather to forgetfulness of or indifference 
to the fact, that the customer in China or the customer in 
Chile is just the same kind of a customer as he who lives 
and thrives in Indiana. The safe and sound arrival of 
goods, says a New York house engaged in exporting to 
South Africa, is the criterion by which shall be judged 
the future success of a manufacturer in the South African 
markets. The manufacturer who ships out goods badly 
packed, which arrive partly lost and partly damaged be- 
cause insufficiently protected against the many risks of 
ocean voyaging, may or may not receive a repeat order 
for his goods. If he does and if a second shipment arrives 
in similar condition, the manufacturer may as well retire 
from that trade, for conservative South African im- 
porters will want nothing more to do with him. Further- 
more, it should be understood that safe and sound arrival 
of goods may very often mean a good deal more than the 
mere arrival intact of the merchandise. The term may 
also involve the arrival of packages or cartons in clean 
and presentable condition which will make a good appear- 
ance on the shelves of dealers, this in itself helping to 
dispose of the goods and increase sales. White paper 
cartons should not be stowed next to heavily oiled case 
lining paper. If they are, the cartons will inevitably be 



28 EXPORT PACKING 

stained and very likely so unsightly that they cannot be 
displayed. A little thought as to the natural desires and 
likes of the retail merchant, ought often to be a good 
guide to the manufacturer in determining how he must 
pack his goods so that they will arrive in the retailer's 
shop in condition to please him, sell the more readily and 
induce more frequent repeat orders. 

An exporter dealing with Latin America emphasizes 
the same point and urges the desirability of always con- 
sulting customers, very especially in Central and South 
America, as to the special packing which those customers 
may desire. This exporter is of the opinion that manu- 
facturers should do this when they quote prices and urge 
orders. The prospective customer should be asked to 
give definite instructions as to just what style of packing 
will best suit him, and the manufacturer may make a 
strong selling point in so doing because he may thus con- 
vince his prospective customer that the latter is quite 
sure to receive his goods just as he wants them. More- 
over, the manufacturer should always fully understand 
that his customer knows what he wants, and the customer 
should be informed that if all goods of a certain class have 
to be packed together and all goods of another class 
packed separately, this can only be done when precise 
instructions have been received by the manufacturer, and 
in the absence of such instructions the manufacturer can 
do no more than use his judgment based on whatever in- 
formation he may be able to secure in this country. Co- 
operation with the customer in this respect is advocated 
by this exporter as tending to the better satisfaction of 
the customer and the increase in trade, also as one of 
the strongest and most effective sales arguments which 
the manufacturer can use. 

Advantages Secured Through Good Packing. — Ad- 
vantages in ocean freight rates may sometimes, although 
perhaps not frequently, be secured when export cases are 
of the highest type possible. Thus, a San Francisco house 
exporting largely canned goods and dried fruits declares 
that some steamship lines allow a better freight rate on 



WHAT EXPORT MERCHANTS SAY 29 

boxes that are strapped than on those which are not 
strapped, the rate to England on canned goods being 
$1.75 strapped and $1.80 not strapped. 

Other advantages in the matter of reducing freight 
charges through intelligent ways of packing goods in- 
clude not only packing to reduce the cubic measurements, 
to which letters already quoted have referred, but the 
following hint from an export house doing business in 
Europe. A great saving in freight charges, it is pointed 
out by this house, can be effected by manufacturers by an 
endeavor, unless other considerations prevent, to pack the 
containers in such a manner that they will be accepted 
by ocean carriers on a weight basis. In other words, to 
pack if possible more than 56 pounds to the cubic foot. 
This can be done in the case of iron pipe fittings, for ex- 
ample, by avoiding the packing of large sizes only in a 
barrel and including in the same barrel the smaller fit- 
tings placed inside of the larger ones, thus reducing the 
total measurement of the shipment. 

Again, one of the principal New York exporters ship- 
ping to the West Coast of South America, points out the 
neglect of some manufacturers to utilize all packing 
space, and writes of a shipment in which automobile tires 
were dispatched packed in cases, the entire hole of the 
1 \ doughnut, ' ' within the tire, being left quite empty not- 
withstanding the fact that on the same order there was a 
quantity of small sundry items which could readily have 
been packed in this empty space. The result was heavily 
increased freight charges, and a large part of those 
charges were for empty space only. 

A foreign freight forwarder declares that more favor- 
able rates of marine insurance, and especially very much 
lower rates for insurance against pilfering, can be secured 
when strong cases instead of second-hand cases are used, 
and they are properly strapped and sealed in such a 
fashion as to make pilfering extremely difficult. 

A firm of important exporters to Australia insists 
that cases be lined with proper waterproof materials, be- 
cause of the fact that insurance companies give them a 



30 EXPORT PACKING 

reduction in premiums on policies when this is done. 

Another large New York house shipping to South 
America declares that New York underwriters have been 
paying special attention to American packing methods in 
order to obtain a guide as to fixing future rates of insur- 
ance against pilferage and breakage. Many heavy claims 
have recently been paid, and some insurance companies 
feel that on account of these claims shipments in any 
except approved packages are extra hazardous. This 
New York house states that it knows that these claims 
are almost invariably valid, and it declares that the 
South American merchant much prefers to receive his 
merchandise in good condition rather than be forced to 
depend upon claims which are difficult of collection, and 
the best of all ways of avoiding claims is through proper 
export packing. 

Influence of Export Merchants on Packing. — Doing 
export business through the average export concern, 
export merchant or commission house, involves consid- 
erations affecting packing similar, in general nature, to 
such considerations which enter into the problem of doing 
direct business with and making direct shipments to cus- 
tomers in foreign markets, and also involves certain 
special considerations to which sufficient attention is not 
always given by manufacturers. In principle, all export 
merchants in this country ought to inspect cases which 
are received from manufacturers for shipment to the 
exporter's foreign customers, and determine before ship- 
ments are loaded on board vessel whether, at least from 
superficial appearances, the cases, barrels or what-not 
are suitable for overseas transportation and inland trans- 
portation at point of destination. While it is quite prob- 
able that export merchants do not thus inspect all ship- 
ments sent in their care for foreign dispatch, yet their 
attention is sure to be drawn to any weak or frail cases 
by the receiving clerks on the docks of ocean steamers, 
who may either refuse to accept unsatisfactory cases, 
may advise the exporter of the fact that cases are not 
suitable, or may accept them and endorse the bill of 



— . — _ „_ 




Courtesy of General Electric Co. 
(9) Method of Packing Welding Machine. 

Machine is shipped complete with top mechanisms leaving considerable empty 
space. Note cribbing supports ensuring against collapse of box. 




■» J 

Courtesy of General Electric Co. 
(10) Completed Case tor Welding Machine. 
Note marking in English, French and Spanish and arrow indicating top of 



case. 



31 




Courtesy of General Electric Co. 
(11) Method of Packing Generator Coils. 

Illustrates use of shock absorbing materials and devices. Note bed of 
excelsior conforming to shape of coils. 




Courtesy of General Electric Co. 
(12) Boxing of Generator Coils. 

Note position of top bracing, making each case thoroughly rigid. Note also 
cushioning and. separation of rows of coils, each self-sustaining, by timbers 
padded with heavy felt. 



32 



WHAT EXPORT MERCHANTS SAY 33 

lading with the statement that certain packages are in 
bad condition when received. The latter is an alterna- 
tive which no exporter and no banker handling shipping 
documents is pleased to have happen. Accordingly, in 
such instances exporters are very frequently called upon 
to repack goods or to recooper broken or weak containers. 
So doing involves expense. No manufacturer can de- 
pend upon an exporter to ensure the dispatch of the 
manufacturer's goods in proper condition. It is the 
manufacturer's duty to his foreign customers and to his 
own prestige and future trade, so to ship his goods in the 
first instance that they will arrive safely in the best 
possible condition. The exporter is not a buffer, and if 
expenses for recoopering, etc., are incurred, it is very 
certain that they will be charged back to the manufac- 
turers at fault. 

Again, the foreign customers of an export house who 
receive the commodities shipped through the mediary of 
the export house in question, may make demands for dam- 
ages incurred from bad packing, about which the ex- 
porter may not have known or had any opportunity of 
learning. Such claims on the exporter are certain to be 
passed back to the manufacturer from whom the goods 
originally came. The exporter cannot be made "the 
goat" in such instances. The manufacturer should in 
the first place have supplied goods properly packed. 

Further, manufacturers must recognize the fact that 
exporters will not, when they can avoid doing so, give 
their orders to those suppliers who refuse to heed specific 
instructions given them regarding packing, or who uni- 
formly supply merchandise improperly or insecurely 
packed for foreign shipment. Exporters will give pref- 
erence to manufacturers who supply the necessary and 
the right sort of packing, and who follow implicitly the 
instructions regarding the way in which goods should be 
packed, usually printed instructions, which the exporter 
gives with his orders. All of these features are brought 
out in the letters from exporting houses which are now 
under review. 



34 EXPORT PACKING 

One of the largest houses shipping to the West Coast 
of South America complains that its requests for special 
attention to export packing are often entirely ignored. 
He has found some manufacturers, however, who have 
been acquainted with export business for years and are 
therefore familiar with its requirements, and it is those 
houses to which this exporter always gives business by 
preference instead of to competitors. 

A firm doing business with the River Plate countries 
writes that it has printed on its order sheets special in- 
structions regarding the packing required, which are 
printed in red ink to ensure their receiving proper atten- 
tion, yet in spite of this goods are continually being re- 
ceived in old, second-hand and recoopered cases, even 
though the instructions on their order blanks include a 
cut of a proper packing case. This firm also complains 
that manufacturers are very often delinquent in failing 
to give proper gross and net weights of their cases, and 
owing to manufacturers ' carelessness in this respect they 
have been fined at least twenty-five times by the custom 
house of one foreign country; and that manufacturers 
generally ignore any claims made on them for shortage, 
or damage on account of bad packing, and refuse to enter- 
tain claims for fines which have been incurred through 
their own carelessness. 

A firm of foreign freight forwarders declares that 
failure to provide proper packing often makes it neces- 
sary to have packages recoopered at American port of 
shipment, the cost of so doing being in many cases greater 
than would have been the cost of providing suitable pack- 
ages in the first place. Furthermore, of course, only the 
most flagrant cases of unsuitable packing appear to de- 
mand recoopering before shipments leave this country, 
although in many other instances shipments go for- 
ward when the bad packing is not obvious, and no trouble 
is suspected until goods arrive at their destination. 

A house which ships largely to the West Indian trade 
is of the opinion that a large proportion of the com- 
plaints which reach this country of bad packing on the 



WHAT EXPORT MERCHANTS SAY 35 

part of American manufacturers, are to be explained by 
the fact that many manufacturers know nothing about 
exporting, while others skimp on their packing with a 
view to lowering the price of their goods. This house 
believes that exporters will have to leave such manufac- 
turers severely alone, and deal only with those who send 
forward their shipments in a way that will do credit to 
our methods and our desire to meet fully obligations to 
foreign customers. 

The New York buyer for one of the largest importers 
in South America says that he has endeavored to teach 
manufacturers from whom he buys the necessity of good 
packing, and the fashion in which merchandise which he 
purchases must be packed, but that the attempt has been 
a thankless task. Being direct buyers, they have too 
often found that after they have paid ocean freights and 
custom house import duties they have exported so much 
broken merchandise, and the manufacturer's mind is a 
blank when he is approached on the subject. 

A San Francisco house engaged principally in the ex- 
port of dried fruits, suggests that all export shippers 
ought to agree together to handle only goods which are 
packed in cases of the right description and strapped at 
both ends. 

Important exporters to Australia give the following 
as an illustration of the expense to which some manufac- 
turers have been subjected on account of their failure to 
follow instructions regarding packing given them by ex- 
port houses. Eecently a Chicago manufacturer shipped 
a lot of hardware to New York on the order of this ex- 
porter, which upon arrival here was picked up by the 
truckman and delivered to the steamship pier. There 
the steamship officials rejected the shipment because pack- 
ages were not suitable. The exporter's representative 
went to the pier to examine them, found that the cases 
were of very old lumber, evidently used several times 
over, because there were numerous indications of a 
variety of old marks which had been partially erased. 
The exporters, therefore, had to entirely repack this 



36 EXPORT PACKING 

shipment in new cases and made claim on the shippers for 
the expense incurred for labor, cost of cases and addi- 
tional storage and cartage charges. The suppliers had 
not followed instructions and were therefore held respon- 
sible. 

It is to be noted, however, that export merchants 
themselves are by no means above criticism when com- 
plaints are made of the bad condition in which American 
goods shipped by them have been received in foreign 
countries. It seems certain that a good many export 
houses do not give sufficient care and attention to the 
fashion in which the goods which they dispatch have been 
originally packed, and their condition when they are put 
on board vessel. In the majority of instances exporters 
know nothing at all about the cases which they ship unless 
they are in such a very bad condition, so flagrantly dam- 
aged, or so obviously impossible, that receiving clerks 
refuse to accept them. Yet another criticism to be made 
of exporters is offered by an export house itself which 
specializes in shipping tin plate and steel products. This 
house remarks that in many instances insufficient export 
packing is the fault not of the manufacturer but of the 
exporter, who frequently buys goods for export at domes- 
tic prices, in packages used for domestic deliveries, be- 
cause he is primarily intent on quoting lower prices than 
do some of his competitors, and is unwilling, therefore, to 
pay the extra cost for adequate export packages. 

A large general export house shipping to all parts of 
the world, complains of the practices of manufacturers in 
carelessly numbering and marking cases, and remarks 
that "as the work of re-numbering has often- to be left 
to the intelligence of a truckman, errors are frequent in 
invalidating consular invoices and resulting in fines in 
foreign custom houses.' ' This may be characterized as 
a criticism of the exporter himself, who certainly is at 
fault if he entrusts the rectification of errors to an ordi- 
nary truckman. If fines are in consequence imposed, the 
remedy is obvious, namely, the supervision of export 
shipments by his own competent employees. 



WHAT EXPORT MERCHANTS SAY 37 

Merchants shipping to Latin America contend that 
manufacturers do not give sufficient attention to the 
strength of their cases, and write of the cargo of a cer- 
tain steamship which went aground and had to be towed 
back to New York, where, upon discharge of the cargo, it 
was found that most of the cases of their shipment on 
board the steamer in question were broken, which, they 
write, would not have happened if cases had been prop- 
erly constructed and iron strapped. A critic, however, 
is quite sure to demand to know why these exporters had 
ever allowed such cases to go on board the steamer. For 
the sake of their own good name and their future trade 
with the customers to whom these shipments were ad- 
dressed, the exporters themselves ought to have made 
certain that the goods which they forwarded were prop- 
erly packed. This is always done, for example, by the 
New York office of large South American mining in- 
terests, which writes that it has a special inspector 
charged with examining the packing of all goods before 
they leave this country. In this instance the matter is 
one of prime personal interest, since the goods are for the 
use of the company which buys them. Perhaps in too 
many instances the ordinary exporter has not the same 
interest in his foreign clients that he might have if he 
himself were the client. In others, incompetent labor is 
employed. 

For example, an illustration of the latter point may be 
found in a letter from a firm of foreign freight for- 
warders, which tells of poor packing in a certain instance 
where several hundred cases arrived in New York, every 
one of which was in bad condition on arrival ; and all had 
to be recoopered before the shipment could be removed 
from warehouse, and even then the nature of the cases 
was such that they did not hold, and upon being delivered 
to the steamer pier by truck they had again to be re- 
coopered before being placed on board the vessel, and 
finally arrived at destination in very bad condition. 
Clearly enough, this is an instance of pretty poor work 
on the part of the carpenter employed by the forwarding 



38 EXPORT PACKING 

house, which is further to be criticized for allowing the 
goods to go forward at all unless in thoroughly satis- 
factory condition. 

Specific Eecommendations of Expokters 

Export Cases. — From many letters received from ex- 
porters bearing on the subject of the kind of export cases 
desirable, the following may be selected. A firm of very 
large shippers to China and Japan writes that it has 
found that there is a point where a package is heavy 
enough to test the limit of the ordinary man's strength 
and not heavy enough to warrant using two men or em- 
ploying a crane, wheelbarrow or hand truck, with the 
result that, while such a case can perhaps be carried, 
when it comes to putting it down it is dropped because 
too heavy to be borne in the stooping position. Breakage 
is sure to result if contents are at all fragile, and to 
guard against this it is preferable that the supplier put 
up a heavier package which will require handling by two 
men or the use of a sling. 

An exporter who is chiefly engaged in shipping food- 
stuffs writes that in his experience, because cases contain- 
ing canned goods in tins, jars or bottles are made of too 
light timber, at least 12 per cent of the shipments do not 
reach destination in saleable condition. 

The disastrous effects of carrying out in export ship- 
ments experiments which have been made in domestic 
shipments, are related by an exporter in connection with 
a shipment of insulated copper wire which came to his 
attention. It appears that the manufacturer, a promi- 
nent concern, tried out a new system of packing for the 
domestic trade, using three-ply veneer wood in order to 
effect economies in cost, and met with success here at 
home. Thereupon they tried the same method in export 
shipments, and the exporter who writes of this example 
happened to be personally in the warehouse of one of the 
customers in Havana, when out of 38 cases 27 arrived in 
unusually bad condition, in one instance all that remained 



WHAT EXPORT MERCHANTS SAY 39 

of the case being the iron straps. Fortunately, the mer- 
chandise was intact, but its condition was not improved 
by the exposure to which it had been subjected. 

Shippers of mining machinery and supplies to South 
America advise that their rule is as follows, in order to 
decrease as far as possible the danger of loss or breakage 
of material due to the lack of adequate packing: Boxes 
must be constructed of not less than %-inch lumber or 
thicker, according to size and weight of contents. The 
ends must be paneled, made of double thickness lumber 
laid crosswise, wooden battens at least % inch by 3 inches 
provided all around each end, with substantial strap iron 
nailed around these battens, ends lapping. The usual 
y 2 inch by No. 28 gauge strapping or twisted wire being 
practically useless, they insist on the use of 1 inch by 
No. 18 gauge strap iron. All fragile articles, glassware, 
etc., must be carefully packed in a case floated within a 
strong outside box, with a liberal quantity of cushioning 
material between inner and outer boxes. 

Checking and Weighing. — The prime importance of 
counting, recounting, checking, rechecking and weighing 
goods before being packed is insisted upon by all ex- 
perienced exporters. The manufacturer must be abso- 
lutely certain that the contents of each case are exact and 
identical, in count and weight, as well as description, with 
the articles supposed to be and invoiced as contained in 
the case in question. 

A New Orleans export commission house dealing 
chiefly with Mexico and Central America, lays particular 
stress upon the necessity for careful weighing of all con- 
tents of packages as well as the entire packages them- 
selves after packing is completed, so as to secure correct 
net, legal and gross weights, and thus avoid fines which 
may be imposed on customers and which mean not only 
loss of money and great annoyance and irritation but in 
many instances eventually lead to loss of trade. This 
loss of trade will originate with the customer who has 
suffered directly from improper attention to these de- 
tails, and also from other houses in the same market, 



40 EXPORT PACKING 

whose business might have been secured through the 
satisfaction and the good will of the first customer. 
Strapping Cases— Protection Against Pilfering. — A 

well-known export house in the Latin American trade 
writes of two different American manufacturers who 
were accustomed to place straps around cases in the same 
direction that the boards of the cases ran — thus making 
the straps practically of no value, as they, of course, can 
only hold the parts over which they are nailed — in- 
stead of reenforcing the entire case by running the bands 
in the opposite direction to the boards. The iron banding 
of cases serves, of course, two purposes. First, reen- 
forcing the strength of a package, although as a promi- 
nent firm of exporters remarks, it is quite useless to hope 
to strengthen a frail package with hoop iron, as boards 
in many such cases are hardly strong enough to hold the 
nails. Banding also helps materially to diminish the 
risk of pilfering, which has grown seriously in recent 
years. 

A firm of South American shippers points out that 
pilferage of cases containing sundry commodities is 
almost certain to occur unless cases are properly reen- 
forced so that they cannot easily be opened; and, since 
rates for insurance against pilferage have been increased, 
many shipments do not carry this risk, and losses in- 
curred are not encouragement to customers to continue 
trading. Another exporter doing business largely with 
Colombia objects to the practice of marking the contents 
of packages on the cases, which not only invites pilfer- 
age but instructs thieves just where they can obtain the 
greatest results for their efforts. If all cases are un- 
marked as to contents doubtless a large number of 
cases would be opened by thieves in course of transit, but 
there would be fewer goods missing on arrival at destina- 
tion, because the thieves would have wasted a good deal 
of their time in opening packages containing goods not 
easily to be disposed of and not worth pilfering. 

An important export house specializing in automo- 
bile accessories submits the following suggestion received 




Coxirtcsy of General Electric Co. 
(13) Completed Case Containing Coils. 




Courtesy of General Electric Co. 
(14) Method of Packing Switchboard. 

Switchboard is shipped without being knocked down. Note "A" frame support 
and cross tie to prevent switchboard from overturning. 

41 




42 



WHAT EXPORT MERCHANTS SAY 43 

by it from a f oreigmcustomer : "Pilfering may be pre- 
vented by strapping the cases inside. Such a strap need 
not be continuous. The cover also must, of course, be 
strapped inside. In such a case one side has to be com- 
pletely destroyed to remove a board because the pilferer 
cannot abstract one board only and replace it without 
detection. ' ' 

Another firm of foreign freight forwarders empha- 
sizes the desirability of steel sealing straps, drawn tigiit 
by machine and nailed in such a fashion that a board can- 
not be removed without being noticed. This especially 
in the case of shipments of shoes and leather. Another 
firm of South American exporters emphasizes the bad 
policy of using advertising matter on the outside of cases ; 
this is an aid to pilferers who are thus told what the 
contents are. Safety seals must be used, as by ordinary 
strapping pilferage is not prevented, since straps can 
simply be removed and put back again. Pilferers, this 
firm remarks, are generally found in the holds of vessels 
or on the docks or even in the custom houses of foreign 
countries, and must not be encouraged by having drawn 
to their attention goods which may profitably be stolen. 

A large steamship company maintaining services to 
the West Indies and Central America, refuses to accept 
for transportation shipments of boots and shoes, cigars, 
etc., unless cases containing such goods are protected by 
metal straps or wires secured by lead seals at the ends, 
or "some equally effective device." 

Tin Case Linings. — The use of hermetically sealed tin 
linings for cases is advocated by some exporters as the 
best possible protection of goods most easily damaged by 
moisture or sea water baths, but in addition to this com- 
monly urged advantage it is to be remembered, says a 
shipper to India, that such tin linings are of very great 
value in shipping to some tropical countries as a protec- 
tion against damage by insects. The objection to the use 
of tin or zinc linings is naturally the very great cost in- 
volved. On this score, a large export merchant writes 
recommending that manufacturers install and maintain 



44 EXPORT PACKING 

their own tinning department and not "give occasion to 
the next door tinner to blackmail them. ' ' 

It is also suggested by a house exporting to the Orient 
that if manufacturers fear to quote prices which will in- 
clude the cost of tin linings, anticipating that such quota- 
tions may not compare favorably in the minds of their 
foreign customers with quotations made by competing 
houses which do not include tin-lined cases, in such in- 
stances manufacturers may easily quote in two different 
fashions : First, for goods to be packed in ordinary water- 
proofing material, and on this score they may assure their 
foreign customers that every care and attention will be 
given to thoroughly adequate waterproofing ; second, they 
may at the same time offer to pack in tin-lined cases which 
will make safe arrival absolutely certain at such and such 
additional costs, giving their customers their choice as to 
how they want their goods shipped. 

Marking of Cases. — Innumerable letters received in 
reply to the questionnaire addressed to exporters and 
shippers, emphasize strenuously the great importance of 
marking and numbering export cases. 

A gentleman from the Philippine Islands recently 
visiting New York, protested against the tremendous 
losses incurred on this score by importers in Manila, 
stating that at the time he left Manila there was mer- 
chandise in the unclaimed warehouse of the Manila cus- 
tom house valued at between $25,000 and $30,000, which 
was not susceptible of identification, as regards marks 
and brands, because of the mutilation or destruction of 
their flimsy containers and utter indifference of the 
shipper in protecting his goods. Bales of textiles arrived 
entirely stripped of covering and without any marks to 
identify them. Heavy iron jacks, weighing between 90 
and 100 pounds each, were snipped in a flimsy fibre box 
which on arrival was in shreds and could not be identified. 
Eailway spikes packed in a flimsy jute sack, and casks 
containing bolts and nuts weighing two or three pounds 
each, arrived without identifying marks because the con- 
tainers were practically destroyed. Iron building bars 



WHAT EXPORT MERCHANTS SAY 45 

arrived without the slightest evidence of packing marks 
or brands. 

A large New York firm of general exporters remarks 
that every export merchant specifies on his orders the 
shipping marks which are to be applied to the containers, 
yet this firm often has packages arrive inscribed with 
their New York address and the manufacturer's trade 
mark, but with the shipping mark and numbers of the 
boxes, if they appeared at all, almost invariably tucked 
away in a corner or on a paper tag attached to the pack- 
age; although this -shipping mark is the real address and 
identifies the shipment in the foreign port where the New 
York house may be quite unknown, or where packages 
from one New York shipper have to be separated and 
delivered to different consignees. This firm emphasizes 
the importance of stenciling the shipping mark and serial 
numbers in large letters on the package, and putting the 
New York consignee's address on a small tag. The same 
firm recommends that shipments to the same consignee 
be numbered consecutively from one shipment to the next, 
that is, if the last shipment finishes with case No. 1,000, 
the next will begin with No. 1,001. This concern has 
observed that the majority of small manufacturers always 
begin each shipment with No. 1, even though shipments 
may be made only a day or two apart and a number of 
them may go forward on the same steamer, in which case 
the packages have to be*re-numbered consecutively by 
the New York concern. It has known instances of ten 
shipments being received, all bearing the same mark and 
each shipment numbered from 1 up. 

Another New York firm urges that a packing list 
should be placed inside of each case, showing not only the 
contents of the case but the same markings as those which 
appear on the outside of the case. This is a protection 
when the case markings are accidentally removed or 
blurred. 

The American purchasing agent for a large South 
American industrial plant protests vigorously against 
the way in which steel material has been shipped, the 



46 EXPORT PACKING 

address and mark appearing only on a tag, which is cer- 
tain to be pulled off by the handlers in loading on board 
vessel or in unloading at port of discharge. 

A foreign freight forwarder in New York urges that 
all marks be made by stencil, and declares that painting 
the marks on with a brush gives occasion for a great 
many mistakes in customs houses at foreign ports, be- 
cause many such marks are blurred and almost obliter- 
ated before port of destination is reached. However, a 
mark put on with a stencil must be properly water- 
proofed. 

An important steamship company calls attention to 
its printed circular of instructions regarding marking 
which reads: "The attention of shippers is especially 
called to the fact that the marking and packing of freight 
is a most important factor in the export trade, and in- 
structions from consignees as well as regulations of the 
various foreign countries should be strictly observed, as 
failure to do so invariably results in fines, delays and 
annoyance at destination. Packages should be marked 
with ink, not crayon or otherwise, and all marks must be 
distinctly legible. Several Latin American countries re- 
quire that all marks be plainly stenciled, brush or other 
kind of marking being prohibited by law. The port of 
destination should be distinctly marked on all packages, 
and in order to prevent goods* from going astray ship- 
per^ name and address should be shown on each package. 
Abbreviations frequently cause confusion and delay. If 
shipments consist of more than one package, all packages 
must be numbered consecutively in addition to other 
marks, and gross and net weights clearly shown thereon, 
and always in kilos on packages destined for Latin Ameri- 
can countries. It is desired to impress upon shippers the 
importance of having numbers, weights and other marks 
shown on packages, agree in every particular with those 
indicated in bill of lading and consular invoice, where the 
latter document is required, as the slightest discrepancy 
causes delay and complications and usually results in 



WHAT EXPORT MERCHANTS SAY 47 

fines and heavy expense to the consignee, as well as pos- 
sible confiscation of the property." 

A merchant house shipping to Scandinavia writes, 
that too many American manufacturers consider proper 
marks as a matter of slight importance. Many difficulties 
have been experienced because shipments have not been 
properly marked. Intolerable inconvenience and con- 
fusion are caused when merchandise arrives and marks 
have become obliterated while en route. 



CHAPTER III 

THE CONSTRUCTION OF BOXES, CRATES 

AND BALES 

By H. N. Knowlton 1 

Boxing and Packing Specialist, General Electric 

Company 

TWO Principal Factors. — The two important factors 
in export packing are adequate protection from 
loss and damage and minimum cost. Adequate 
protection is the more important of the two, as the de- 
livery of the goods in undamaged condition is generally 
the primary reason for packing. The factor of cost is 
important because the keen competition in export trade, 
both foreign and domestic, makes minimum delivery 
costs absolutely necessary. Packing may affect ultimate 
delivery costs in any one or all of the following respects : 
cost of the container or packing materials ; cost of labor 
in packing ; insurance costs ; freight rates both ocean and 
railroad; storage costs; cartage costs and import duty. 
The ideal export packing is that which will deliver 
the goods to the foreign customer in perfect condition at 
minimum cost. The endeavor of many American ex- 
porters, however, to reduce their packing costs to a min- 
imum without giving enough consideration to the more 
important factor of adequate protection, together with 
a lack of knowledge of the hazards of loss and damage 
which are encountered in export shipping, are the prin- 
cipal causes of improper packing of American export 
goods. 

11910-1917, Asst. Engineer in Forest Products, U. S. Forest Service. 
1917-1919, Captain, Ordnance Dept. U. S. A., in charge of Packing Serv- 
ice. 1919-1920, Manager Packing Service Dept. Safepack Mills, Boston, 
Mass. 1920, Boxing and Packing Specialist, General Electric Company. 

48 



CONSTRUCTION OF BOXES, CRATES, BALES 49 

Export Versus Domestic Packing. — Export packages 
must of necessity be more securely constructed than do- 
mestic because the conditions of export shipment are so 
much more severe. As an example, a shipment to the 
Andes districts of South America first moves to seaboard 
either by express or freight. Upon arrival at seaport it 
may be carted to a warehouse and stored before ship 
space is obtainable. From the warehouse it is handled 
to the dock and from the dock into the ship's hold, prob- 
ably either by means of a sling or a net. It is stowed 
away in hold with other freight and possibly with heavy 
packages on top of it. The ship encounters rough 
weather and pitches considerably, causing the cargo to 
shift and the packages to weave back and forth loosen- 
ing the nails in boxes and crates, loosening hoops on bar- 
rels and driving heavy packages against weaker ones. 
Upon arrrival at port the shipment, because of a poor 
harbor, must possibly be discharged into lighters in a 
choppy sea. The aim is to lower the sling load of pack- 
ages into the lighter with as little impact as possible, 
but a sudden swell raises the lighter and the load hits 
it with a bang. The lighter is towed to the dock amid 
dashes of sea spray and the packages discharged. Pos- 
sibly there is a lack of storage space and they are left 
on the dock in the rain for several days, where they are 
of easy access to pilferers. They are then handled by 
freight to a point in the interior, and thence loaded on 
mules for a several days ' trip to final destination. Owing 
to the hazards just mentioned packing which is entirely 
satisfactory for domestic shipment may be and generally 
is entirely unsatisfactory for export. 

To pack correctly for any foreign market an intimate 
knowledge should be had of the port conditions, transpor- 
tation facilities and climatic conditions of the country of 
destination as these all have a vital bearing on the neces- 
sary protection from damage. A knowledge of the 
method of levying import duty is also very important, as 
in some countries the duty is levied on the gross weight 
of the package and unnecessarily heavy containers may. 



50 EXPORT PACKING 

make the import duty more than the value of the goods. 

During the past few years extensive tests of various 
containers and packing materials have been made, par- 
ticularly by the Forest Products Laboratory of the 
United States Forest Service. The qualities of various 
woods have been exhaustively studied and the relation of 
these qualities to wooden package construction has been 
determined. Nails and other fastenings used in wooden 
packages have been investigated and rules worked out 
for their proper use. The efficiency and limitations of 
different types of containers, and the effect on their 
strength of the character of the contents and the method 
of packing have been carefully studied. The results of 
these tests on containers and packing materials have 
from time to time been published and have also been 
embodied in various specifications, the most complete of 
which are the several Packing Specifications of the War 
Department. The export packing instructions which fol- 
low are based largely on the War Department specifica- 
tions, although use has also been made of other authori- 
tative data on the subject. 

Box Construction. — The construction of wooden boxes 
for export is a subject which demands much careful 
study. The type of box selected, the species, quality and 
size of lumber used, the method of nailing and joining 
the parts together, the method of strapping and the 
method of packing the contents in the box all vitally af- 
fect its efficiency and serviceability. 

In general, except for light boxes such as canned food 
boxes and similar containers, cleated boxes should be 
used for export service. The cleats tie the box end to- 
gether, preventing it from splitting and also add more 
nailing surface for nailing the sides, top and bottom to 
the ends. They also stiffen the box end and are of great 
value in resisting the thrust which occurs when the box 
is dropped on its - corner, or when heavy weights are 
stored on top of it as is often the case in the hold of a 
ship. It is also much more difficult to pilfer a cleated 
box than one without cleats. 




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53 



CONSTRUCTION OF BOXES, CRATES, BALES 53 

The particular species of lumber used in the construc- 
tion of a box is not as important a matter as has often 
Been supposed. The ultimate strength of a box is much 
more dependent upon the quality and size of lumber used 
and the method of nailing and strapping than upon the 
species used. 

The quality of the lumber as regards seasoning and 
defects is a vital factor. Boxes made of green lumber 
lose a large part of their strength upon drying out, owing 
chiefly to the loosening of the nails from the shrinking 
of the boards. It is absolutely essential that the boards 
of which the box is made be seasoned down to general 
atmospheric conditions, or to from 12 to 18 per cent 
moisture, based on the weight of the wood after oven dry- 
ing. Improper seasoning is one of the most common 
faults in export boxes and should be very carefully 
guarded against. The number of defects in the box 
boards such as knots, knot holes, season checks, or open- 
ings in the grain caused by seasoning and decay is also 
a matter of much importance, as the strength of the 
individual boards is dependent in a large measure on 
the number, size and position of such defects. Large 
knots, especially when they are unsound or decayed or 
loose, and large knot holes decrease the strength of the 
piece, particularly when they are near the middle of the 
board, and should not be permitted in export boxes. 
Large checks or splits should not be admitted, unless 
properly reenforced across the opening with corrugated 
fasteners, and decayed or rotten lumber should also 
never be used. No defects should ever be permitted in 
box boards which interfere with the proper nailing of the 
box. It is again emphasized that the severe conditions of 
export shipping demand good containers, and good boxes 
cannot be made of green lumber or lumber of poor 
quality. 

The size of the lumber used in the box or its thickness 
and width is of much importance, as this affects both 
the cost and the strength of the container. The standard 
commercial thicknesses and widths should wherever pos- 



54 EXPORT PACKING 

sible be adhered to, as the use of special sizes not carried 
in stock by lumber dealers or box factories greatly in- 
creases the cost of the box and in most instances accom- 
plishes no particular purpose. By far the larger part 
of lumber used in box manufacture ranges in width from 
4" to 6" or 8" although widths up to 12" are sometimes 
available. 

Boxes made of wide boards are preferable to boxes 
made of narrow boards, as they are more rigid, and there 
is not the danger of the box twisting out of shape by 
shearing along the joints between boards when it is 
dropped on a corner of the end. Also the wider the 
board, the less it will be weakened by a defect of any 
particular size. As a rule no piece of less than 2 1/2" 
face width should be used in any part except the cleats, 
since pieces narrower than this cannot be properly nailed 
with two nails at each end, as adequate nailing requires. 
If pieces as narrow as 2 1/2" face width are used their 
number should be limited, and they should be placed in 
the center of the side, top, bottom or end. The partic- 
ular thickness of lumber required in a box depends upon 
the size, character and weight of the contents, so it is 
impossible to lay down a definite rule in this respect. The 
contents of some boxes are strong and rigid and offer 
much support to the side, top, bottom and ends. In this 
case the element of damage by breaking or puncturing 
of the box boards is reduced to a minimum, and less thick- 
ness is generally required than where the contents offer 
little or no support and the box is dependent solely on 
its rigidity for its strength. Boxes of excessive size must 
generally be of thicker material than small boxes, owing 
to the increased danger of the breaking of long boards. 
Also boxes with heavy contents must usually be of thicker 
material than boxes with light contents. Thinner ma- 
terial may be used in boxes if they are made of hard- 
woods such as beech, birch, maple, elm, ash, oak or gum 
because of the greater inherent strength and greater nail 
holding power of the hardwoods. The ideal box is the 
box which is of balanced construction, or in which each 



CONSTRUCTION OF BOXES, CRATES, BALES 55 

part is just strong enough to balance the average 
strength in every other part. The particular thickness 
of material necessary to give both this balanced construc- 
tion and also sufficient strength to carry the contents 
safely to destination, is a point which will have to be 
carefully worked out for each product. 

Nailing. — The method by which the parts of a box are 
nailed together determines in a large measure its ulti- 
mate strength. Often the addition of a few correctly 
placed nails will increase the strength over 100 per cent. 
Improper and inadequate nailing are two of the most 
common faults in export boxes. The National Associa- 
tion of Box Manufacturers has recently issued a nailing 
schedule, which is based upon years of tests made by the 
United States Forest Service and also upon years of 
practical experience. Adherence to this schedule will 
insure adequate nailing and will do much toward improv- 
ing export boxes. The principal woods used in boxes are 
classed into four groups as follows, depending chiefly 
upon their physical and mechanical properties with re- 
spect to the way they receive and hold nails, and with 
respect to their strength : 



Group 

Alpine Fir 

Aspen 

Balsam Fir 

Basswood 

Beech IV 

Birch IV 

Black Ash II 

Black Gum II 

Buckeye 

Butternut 

Cedar 

Chestnut 

Cottonwood 

Cucumber 

Cypress 

Douglas Fir I 

Hackberry IV 

Hemlock I 

Hickory IV 

Jack Pine 

Larch (Tamarack) I 

Lodgepole Pine 

Magnolia 



Group 

Maple, Hard IV 

Maple, Soft or Silver Ill 

Noble Fir. I 

Norway Pine I 

Oak IV 

Pumpkin Ash Ill 

Red Gum : Ill 

Redwood I 

Rock Elm... IV 

So. Yellow Pine II 

Spruce I 

Sugar Pine: I 

Sycamore Ill 

Tupelo Ill 

Va. and Car. Pine II 

Western Yellow Pine I 

White Ash IV 

White Elm Ill 

White Fir I 

White Pine I 

Willow I 

Yellow Poplar I 



56 



EXPORT PACKING 



The gauge of nails to be used is determined princi- 
pally by the thickness and species of the wood in which 
the points of the nails are held after driving. The 
schedule which follows is based upon standard cement 
coated box nails. 



Use cement coated nails 
of gauge indicated. 


Thickness of Ends or Cleats to which Sides, 
Tops and Bottoms are nailed 


Thickness of Sides 
to which Top and 
Bottom are nailed 


When species of wood 
holding points of 
nails is: 


or 

less 


%" 


y 2 " 


%" 


y%" 


11/ " 
Mis 

or 


n As" 


%" 


1 Less 
than 


to 


5 A" 
to 


GROUP I 


4d 
4d 
3d 
3d 


5d 
4d 
4d 
3d 


5d 
5d 
4d 
4d 


6d 
5d 
5d 
4d 


7d 

6d 

. 5d 

4d 


8d 
7d 
6d 
5d 


8d 
7d 
7d 
6d 


9d 
8d 
7d 
7d 


4d 
4d 
3d 
3d 


6d 
5d 
4d 
4d 


7d 


GROUP II 


6d 


GROUP III 


5d 


GROUP IV 


5d 







!Only in exceptional cases is side nailing recommended when the thickness of sides is less 
than V 2 ". 



In export boxes the spacing of the nails should be 
closer than in domestic boxes, owing to the rougher han- 
dling to which they will be subjected. In nailing side, top 
and bottom to ends six penny nails and nails smaller than 
six penny, should be spaced not to exceed 1 1/2 " apart 
when driven into the side grain of the box end and not to 
exceed 1 1/4" apart when driven into the end grain of 
the end. With nails larger than six penny the spacing 
should be increased one-fourth inch for each penny over 
six. In nailing top and bottom to sides, the nails should 
be spaced six inches or more apart when the nails are six 
penny or smaller, increasing the spacing 1" for each 
penny over six. No board should have less than two nails 
at each nailing end, and on edges where cleats are used 
the nails should be staggered so that approximately half 
of them are driven into the cleat and half into the end. 
Nails with large heads should be used, particularly when 
the sides, top and bottom are of thin lumber and great 
care should be taken not to overdrive nails. No nails 
should be driven into joints between boards. 



CONSTRUCTION OF BOXES, CRATES, BALES 57 

Cleats on box ends should be firmly nailed to the ends 
with nails of sufficient length to pass through the cleat 
and through the end, and clinch not less than one-quarter 
of an inch. Where the box end is composed of more than 
one piece each piece should be nailed to each cleat with 
not less than two nails. The number of nails used to nail 
the cleat to the end should be approximately the same as 
the number used to nail the adjacent side, top or bottom 
to the cleat and end. The nails should be evenly stag- 
gered and should be' placed as near the edge of the cleat 
as possible without splitting it. 

Strapping. — The metal strapping of export boxes is a 
matter of the utmost importance. All export boxes no 
matter what their size, weight or destination should be 
metal strapped, as properly applied strapping greatly in- 
creases their strength and also is of great assistance in 
preventing pilfering. There are a number of different 
types of strapping in use, the principal kinds being single 
wire, twisted wire and flat steel band, applied with nails 
or staples. Wire and flat band strap are also made so 
that they can be applied under heavy tension without 
nails or staples, by the use of patented stretching and 
sealing devices. Plain flat band unannealed steel strap, 
coated to prevent rust, makes an excellent binding when 
properly located on the box and properly stretched and 
nailed. In most instances the unannealed strap is prefer- 
able to the annealed, because it has approximately one- 
third more tensile strength and is not so likely to stretch 
or to tear or break. The thickness and width of strap and 
the number of straps which should be used in any par- 
ticular case depend upon the size, gross weight, shape 
and construction of the box and the character of the con- 
tents. Very long boxes may require several straps, one 
at each end and one or more equally spaced between the 
end straps. Where the boards on the top and bottom 
of the box are run crossways or with the grain parallel to 
the box end, the box should be strapped two ways : i. e. 
one strap around each end parallel to the ends and one 
strap around the box on each side parallel to the sides. 



58 EXPORT PACKING 

Boxes of large size or heavy gross weight require a 
heavier, stronger strap than boxes of small size or light 
gross weight. In general a strap 1/2" wide by .018" in 
thickness shonld be satisfactory for boxes up to 100 lbs. 
gross weight, while boxes over 100 lbs. gross weight 
should as a rule have a stronger strap — 5/8" wide by 
.020" in thickness, or 3/4" wide by .015" in thickness, 
having, a tensile strength of about 1,200 lbs. These 
are only general instructions and may have to be 
deviated from in particular cases. The character of the 
contents of the box also affects the size and number of 
straps necessary. When the contents are of very high 
value, or where because of the nature of the contents it is 
necessary that the box be very rigid, it may be necessary 
to use stronger straps and to place a number of different 
straps on the box. The two common methods of locating 
the strap are directly over the box ends and in a slight 
distance from the end. Nailless strap and wire are al- 
ways applied in from the box end, being drawn to heavy 
tension by the use of a stretching device, and the ends 
sealed in some manner. No matter at what point the 
strapping is applied it is of the utmost importance that it 
be drawn to maximum tightness before nailing. Loosely 
applied strap loses much of its value as a binding, and 
the shrinking of the box as it drys out will make it loosen 
up even more, causing it to bulge between the nails and 
form festoons which are very liable to catch and tear on 
every projection which the box encounters in handling. ' 
It may safely be said that improper stretching before 
nailing causes more failure of strapping from breaking, 
tearing or pulling off the box, than any other one factor. 
The strap should be very securely nailed, especially 
where it passes over the corners of the box or where the 
side, top and bottom of the box meet. Between the box 
corners it should be nailed at frequent intervals, as a 
rule every 3 or 4 inches, to keep it tight against the box 
surface and minimize festooning. It is also a good plan 
with nailless strap or wire, to fasten it with nails or 
staples at each of the four corners to prevent it from 



CONSTRUCTION OF BOXES, CRATES, BALES 59 

slipping off when the box shrinks and the strap loosens. 

Marking. — The marking of a package with shipping 
directions and other necessary information, is as impor- 
tant as the packing and should be completely and care- 
fully done, as improper marking may result in the loss 
of the package or in the imposition of heavy fines in the 
country of destination because the markings are not in 
accordance with the country's regulations. 

The marks on the package should agree absolutely 
with those on the invoice and bill of lading. Wherever 
possible the markings should be stencilled on the package 
with black waterproof stencil paint, or where the article 
or package is of a dark color, with white paint. Sten- 
cilled markings are preferred to hand markings because 
they are clearer and generally occupy less space. All 
characters should be large enough so that they are 
plainly visible, in general not less than 2" high and larger 
on packages of large size. As a rule the complete mark- 
ings should appear on two faces of the package. Care 
should be taken that the markings are dry before han- 
dling the package. 

The use of tags should be avoided as much as possible 
because they are very liable to tear off or become defaced 
so that they are illegible. Where, because of the nature 
of the package, their use is necessary, they should be 
metal and should be firmly wired to the package. Labels 
are also objectionable because they are liable to be loos- 
ened by moisture or become defaced. 

The name of the consignee and the destination of the 
package with its routing should be marked in the most 
prominent place and in the largest letters, preferably in 
the middle of the face of the package as these markings 
are the most important. Other required markings such 
as the gross weight, tare weight, net weight, cubic dis- 
placement or serial numbers, should preferably be in the 
corners of the face of the package. 

It is always well to place a duplicate set of markings 
inside the package as a means of identifying it, should by 
any means the markings on the outside become defaced. 



60 EXPORT PACKING 

It is also well to place a packing list inside, enumerating 
the kind and number of items making up the contents as 
an aid in tracing loss. Marks such as "This Side Up" 
or "Handle With Care" do not do much good unless 
written in the language of the country of destination. 
Advertising and other unrequired marks should be 
omitted as much as possible, because the presence of un- 
necessary markings is liable to cause confusion or mis- 
takes in interpreting the necessary markings. No old 
markings of any kind should ever appear on packages. 

Care in Packing and Special Protection. — The method 
of packing the contents in a container demands as care- 
ful attention as the construction of the container itself. 
Frequently the container is adequately constructed and 
arrives at destination in good condition, but the contents 
are damaged because they were improperly packed. 

The contents of the package should be very firmly and 
compactly packed, articles of irregular shape being 
nested together so that they occupy the least possible 
space. Loose packing of the contents, particularly in 
boxes and crates, may also seriously affect the strength 
of the container, since with the jars and vibrations of 
transportation the loose articles act as a hammer and 
loosen the nails and fastenings. Machinery, vehicles and 
other commodities which occupy an excess of space when 
packed assembled, should be disassembled before packing. 

Articles of a fragile nature should be separated from 
each other and from the container with partitions, racks, 
braces or cushioning material, so that the shocks of trans- 
portation will be absorbed and not produce breakage. 

Internal Packing Material. — Regarding the use of in- 
ternal packing material, this is a rather difficult subject 
to treat, as the packing material which should be used 
depends entirely upon the contents of the container. Ex- 
celsior is a material which is used to a great extent for 
cushioning purposes, to separate breakable articles from 
each other and from the walls of the container. Excelsior 
differs considerably in its cushioning properties, some 
excelsiors being much more springy than others. Excel- 



CONSTRUCTION OF BOXES, CRATES, BALES 61 

sior is well suited for many packing purposes where 
cushioning material is needed, but there are also places 
where it should be used with limitations. Some shippers 
of aluminum-ware claim that excelsior, which is wet or 
damp, makes a bad packing material, as it is liable to 
injure the aluminum during export shipment. For pack- 
ing purposes excelsior should always be dry, that is, have 
approximately the same moisture content as the air. This 
is especially necessary where it is used as a cushioning 
material for furniture and other finished wood surfaces. 
Where it is used in connection with a highly polished 
wood surface, the wood should first be covered with a 
flannel or very soft material so that the excelsior will not 
produce scratching. Considerable highly polished mahog- 
any furniture is often damaged by placing the excelsior 
directly on the furniture, especially if it is somewhat 
damp. 

Crumpled paper is considerably used for a cushioning 
material, and is excellent for this purpose. Bogus paper 
is considerably used for this purpose because of its soft 
character and cheap cost. Straw is also used to a con- 
siderable extent, but for certain purposes the straw is 
objectionable because it is liable to break up easily into 
small pieces, especially if old straw is used. Corrugated 
straw boards are also much used, especially for wraps 
around bottles, and make a very efficient cushioning 
material. Straw board is also used for partitions be- 
tween bottles, and in some cases makes a better material 
than wood partitions, because it has more resistance than 
the wood and does not break off the way the wood does. 
Hair felt is often used as a cushioning material for wrap- 
ping around highly finished metal surfaces, to prevent 
them from scratching, and also to form a cushioning 
material to minimize the shocks and jars of transporta- 
tion, especially in the case of delicate instruments. 
Wooden partitions and wooden cleats, properly placed 
in a box, can often be substituted in place of excelsior 
with considerable saving of space. One large electrical 
concern recently substituted such partitions and cleats 



62 EXPORT PACKING 

in place of excelsior, for packing insulators, with a great 
saving in space and saving in cost of packing, and these 
cleats offered just as good protection as the excelsior. 
Cast-iron articles must be very carefully protected 
against the shocks and jars of transportation or they are 
very liable to be broken. Cast-iron stoves are one of the 
most difficult articles to export, because of the fact that 
they break very easily from the jars of shipment. Where 
several cast-iron articles are packed in the same con- 
tainer, they should be separated from each other by soft 
wood cleats and should be protected by plenty of cushion- 
ing material. 

Waterproofing. — Protection from damage by water, 
moisture, or dampness is very necessary in the export 
shipment of many kinds of goods. The package may be 
exposed to rain in loading or unloading from the ship or 
in carting across the city. It is subjected to more or less 
dampness in the ship's hold. Wet packages may be piled 
on top of it during transportation or storage. If it is 
unloaded from the ship into lighters it may receive 
drenching dashes of sea spray. If it is destined for a 
damp, tropical climate it may encounter torrential rains 
and excessively humid atmosphere. 

Machinery, hardware, vehicles, furniture, musical in- 
struments, textiles, clothing, leather and leather goods, 
books, stationery, certain food products and chemicals 
are some of the more important products which require 
waterproof protection. 

Iron and steel parts subject to damage by rust should 
be coated with a good anti-rust compound, which is thick 
enough under ordinary temperatures to adhere well and 
not drop off or rub off. It should contain no grit, acid or 
other injurious substance and should be of such a char- 
acter that it can be removed without too much difficulty. 

Lining. — All boxes and crates containing material 
subject to damage by water or moisture should be lined 
with a thoroughly waterproof paper. The standard case 
and crate lining paper used by the War Department and 
also by many different industries, is a duplex waterproof 



CONSTRUCTION OF BOXES, CRATES, BALES 63 

paper made of two 30-lb. sheets of No. 1 sulphate kraft 
basis 24" x 36" — 480 cemented together with asphaltum. 
This paper is absolutely waterproof, is of just the right 
strength for a case or crate lining material and is of the 
right weight to handle well. The waterproof coating is 
between the two sheets, out of sight and out of touch, 
where it cannot scrape off. The paper can also be folded 
without breaking the waterproof coating, which is an im- 
portant requisite in a case or crate lining paper. Duplex 
papers may also be had in heavier weights where extra 
strength is desired, such as combinations of two 40, two 
50 or two 60-lb. papers. 

Another paper which is much used where it is desired 
to wrap the article itself or part of it, is a paper made of 
one sheet of sulphate kraft coated with asphaltum and 
reenforced with cotton cloth of various mesh. This paper 
can be had in various weights from a 30-lb. to an 80-lb. 
sheet, and reenforced with a cotton cloth varying from 8 
to 40 threads to the inch each way. Cloth reenforced 
paper is much used in places where strength and resist- 
ance to tear or puncture is desired, such as a wrap for 
parts of engines, for electrical apparatus, for parts of 
vehicles and for bundles. By tying the paper securely 
with cord and asphalting all joints, a perfectly watertight 
wrap can be made around an article of irregular shape 
such as an engine part. Cloth reenforced paper is also 
used to line cases and crates, where the nature of the con- 
tents or the method of the construction of the package 
demands a paper of extra strength. 

Other^waterproof papers much used are a kraft paper 
coated with asphaltum and reenforced with burlap, and 
a paper made of two sheets of kraft cemented together 
with asphaltum and reenforced between the two sheets 
with parallel cords. The burlap reenforced paper is much 
used where a strictly waterproof paper of great strength 
and resistance to abrasion is required. Because of their 
tensile strength and resistance to tearing across the 
cords, the cord reenforced papers are much used in nar- 
row widths to spirally wrap material in coils or rolls. 



64 EXPORT PACKING 

Some articles which are very hygroscopic or extremely 
liable to damage by water or humid atmosphere, are 
packed in metal lined, hermetically sealed containers. 

Crate Construction. — A wooden crate consists of a 
frame with or without bracing. It may also be entirely 
closed or sheathed over similar to a box. Completely 
closed crates are often called cases. 

The construction of crates has not been standardized 
as has the construction of boxes, because the method of 
their construction is dependent in a large measure on the 
size, shape and weight of the article which is being crated. 
Crates are, from the nature of their construction, vitally 
dependent upon the method of joining and fastening the 
crate members together. 

For articles of large size and weight crates are gen- 
erally more economical than boxes, because the box will 
have to be made throughout of lumber of excessive thick- 
ness to give the required strength, while in the crate the 
required strength can be secured in the frame and braces, 
which can be covered with thin sheathing if necessary. 

In general the same remarks regarding the quality of 
lumber used in boxes apply also to crates. In the crate 
frame and braces, however, it is very important that 
strictly sound first quality lumber be used, free from any 
defects which impair its strength. The War Department 
specifications for crating limit the size of knots in frame 
and braces to one-fourth the width of the piece in which 
they occur. 

As in the case of boxes, the particular species of lum- 
ber which is used is not a matter of as much importance 
as that the lumber be of proper quality, proper thickness 
and properly joined and fastened in the crate. Prac- 
tically any of the commercially important woods will 
make satisfactory crates. The standard commercial 
thicknesses and widths should be adhered to wherever 
possible. Except in the case of small light crates, the 
width of frame members or braces should not be less than 
three inches, as it is difficult to properly nail or bolt 
pieces narrower than this. The sheathing or covering 



CONSTRUCTION OF BOXES, CRATES, BALES 65 

material should not be less than 2 1/2" face width. The 
particular thickness of lumber to be used in the frame and 
braces depends upon the size, weight and shape of the 
article which is being crated, so no definite instructions 
can be given on this point. When hardwoods such as 
beech, birch, maple, elm, ash, oak or gum are used for 
frame and braces, the thickness of lumber required may 
roughly be 25 per cent less than when the soft woods are 
used, owing to the greater inherent strength of the hard- 
woods and their greater holding power for fastenings. 
In selecting the size of the lumber for use in the frame and 
braces it should be borne in mind that crates, especially 
those of large size carrying heavy weights, are subjected 
to many strains in handling during shipment, and from 
the nature of crate construction the individual members, 
even in well constructed, well braced crates, are often 
required to bear a considerable proportion of the gross 
weight of the package. The crate should be so con- 
structed and the size of the frame members should be 
such, that wherever possible the package will ride safely 
on side, top, bottom or end. 

Bolting and Nailing.— The method of nailing or bolt- 
ing the members of a crate together is even more im- 
portant than the method of nailing the parts of a box to- 
gether. The bolting or nailing surface in crates is much 
smaller than in boxes, and much of the strength of the 
crate depends upon the efficiency of the fastenings, par- 
ticularly those at each of the eight corner joints. Both 
nails and bolts are used as fastenings, the nails as a rule 
being used for crates of thin material — 2" and under. 
All nails of size 20 penny and under should be standard 
cement coated box nails, as the cement coated nails have 
from 10 to 30 per cent more holding power, and because 
of their thinner gauge cause less splitting in driving. In 
frames and frame braces the length of the nail should be 
not less than twice the thickness of the member to be 
nailed on, or the piece through which the nail first passes. 
Frames and braces should have not less than two nails in 
each nailing edge — more nails being used in the wide 



66 EXPORT PACKING 

pieces. Where the piece receiving the point of the nails is 
of sufficient thickness, the nails through frame pieces and 
braces should be staggered. Crossed braces should have 
not less than two nails driven through both braces where 
they cross, and these nails should be clinched where pos- 
sible. The nails used in the sheathing or covering ma- 
terial should generally be 2 penny larger than the thick- 
ness of the sheathing expressed in eighths of an inch, and 
the nails should be driven in a staggered row where pos- 
sible, approximately 2 1 / 2 " apart. Where bolts are used 
for fastening frame pieces and braces they should be car- 
riage bolts in preference to machine bolts. Standard 
cut washers should be used under bolt heads and nuts 
except under the heads of carriage bolts. The holes for 
the bolts should be bored to the same diameter as the 
bolts or a fraction smaller. In frames from 1 to 1%" in 
thickness %" bolts should be used, in frames up to 3" in 
thickness %" bolts, and in frames over 3" in thickness 
%" bolts. To prevent the nuts from working loose the 
threads below the nut should be upset. Not less than two 
bolts should be used in each framing edge, and the bolts 
should be staggered where possible. 

Joining and Bracing. — Much of the strength and ef- 
ficiency of the crate depends upon the way the members 
are joined together, and the way the contents are braced 
in the crate. Economy of space should always be in mind 
in crate construction. The corner joints should be so 
made and the braces so placed that the displacement of 
the crate is as small as possible. The " Three Way 
Corner" joint should be used on each of the eight corners 
wherever possible, as this joint occupies the least amount 
of space — only one thickness of lumber intervening be- 
tween the contents and the outside surface of the crate. 
In this joint the three frame members entering into it — 
the side member, the end member and the top or bottom 
member — are joined so that each piece is held by nails 
or bolts driven from two directions, and all nailing, if 
nails are used, is into the side grain of the wood, which 
gives maximum holding power. (Diagram 1, fig. 1, page 



CONSTRUCTION OF BOXES, CRATES, BALES 67 

68, illustrates the most efficient and most used type of 
three way corner joint. Figures 2 and 3 illustrate two 
more of the seven possible joinings of the three members 
to give this corner.) m 

Large crates and crates with heavy contents should 
always be diagonally braced, and braces should be placed 
so that they are as near a 45° angle as possible. Where 
the panel to be braced is long compared to its width it 
may be necessary to use one or more cross members to 
bring the diagonal braces at or near a 45° angle. 

The following rule, which I quote from a pamphlet 
written by me, and published by the Safepack Mills, in- 
dicates the spacing of the cross members, and the number 
of panels of bracing: " Divide the longer dimension of 
the side or end -to be braced by the shorter dimension, 
then — 

(a) If the result is less than 1%, use one angular 
or crossed brace (see Diagram 2, page 68), 
6-=-6 = l. 

(b) If the result is 1% or more and less than 3, 
use a cross member and two angular or 
crossed braces (see Diagram 3, page 69), 
8-^-3.7=2.1. • Use a cross member and 
two angular braces or a cross member and 
two crossed braces. 

(c) If the result is 3 or greater, use a number 
of angular or cross braces equal to the first 
figure of the result and cross members to 
correspond, thus (see Diagram 4, page 70), 
14-^-3 = 4.6. Use four crossed braces (or 
four angular braces) and three cross 
members. 

"■ Braces are made both with single mitred ends and 
with double mitred ends (see Diag. 2). The single mitred 
end^ brace is much used on light crates of thin frame 
material. In the single mitred end brace, most of the 
stress in the brace must be taken by the fastenings in the 
end because the surface 'ab r (Diagram 2, fig. 1) has no 
bearing on the crate frame* In the* double mitred end 



68 



EXPORT PACKING 



brace, the end is so cut that the 'toe* of the brace 'be' 
(Diagram 2, fig. 2) bears against the upright frame, thus 
taking some of the stress off of the fastenings in the 
brace and transmitting it directly to the frame. In the 
double mitred end brace, the 'heel' of the brace or the 
distance 'ac' (Diagram 2, fig. 2) should be cut longer 
than the 'toe' 'be'' as shown, so as to afford as much 
nailing or bolting surface as possible. 




tj^ 





Fig. 2 



Fig. 3 



Fig. 1 
Courtesy of Safepack Mills. 

Diagram 1 

"When crossed braces are used as shown on Dia- 
gram, 2, fig. 2, it is necessary to place a fill piece 'x' of 
same thickness as the under brace, beneath the ends of 
the outside brace so as to make a flush nailing or bolting 
surface. These pieces should be securely nailed to the 
frame. 




Qn»An$vUr Brav One, Crossed Brace 

Fig. 1 Fig. 2 

Courtesy of Safepack Mills. 

Diagram 2 « 

"As far as possible the combined thickness of braces 
or of braces and sheathing, should not exceed the thick- 
ness of the frame members, so as not to project beyond 
the crate frame and increase the displacement of the 



CONSTRUCTION OF BOXES, CRATES, BALES 69 

crate (see Diag. 5). The thickness of the sheathing \S, J 
plus the thickness of the braces 'B,' equals the thickness 
of the frame member 'M.' 

"When sheathing is used, diagonal braces are often 
placed outside the sheathing, as shown on Diag. 5, in 
which case one of the braces is usually divided when 
crossed braces are used, as shown. ' ' 




3.7' 



Appn% i+S' Angle 
Ore Cross fltmber end Two Crossed Bracks 
Fig. 1 
* 8* 




One Cross Member and Two Angular Braces 

Fig. 2 
Courtesy of Safepack Mills. 

Diagram 3 

With heavy articles the skids, or horizontal frame 
members upon which the load rests, should be at least 
50 per cent thicker than the other frame members, the 
additional thickness preferably being in a separate piece 
nailed or bolted to the skids. The ends of the skids 
should always be chamfered or beveled. 

It is very important that the contents of the crate be 
firmly anchored to the skids with bolts or clamps, and also 
firmly braced against lateral or longitudinal movement. 
To quote again from the pamphlet mentioned : 

"When the contents has base holes it should be bolted 



70 



EXPORT PACKING 



securely to the skids or to cross members in turn securely 
bolted to the skids. Large washers should be used under 
bolt heads* and under nuts, and either the threads on the 
bolt ends should be upset or lock nuts should be used to 
prevent nuts from working loose. 




' Apfrm- t-S' ArtfU 

Thrte Cross Mt.mbt.rj 4>nd Four Crossed Brace* 



Courtesy of Safepack Mills. 



Diagram 4 



"When the contents has no base holes it should be 
firmly held in place by clamps placed at each end or side, 
fitted snugly to the load and held in place by one or more 
bolts at each end. The clamps should be full width or 
length of the crate, and sufficiently large in cross section 
so that they will not spring when the bolts are drawn 
home. Such clamps should also be placed on the side of 
the contents to prevent lateral movement. 




1 1 



Courtesy of Safepack Mills. 
Diagram 5 

Internal wooden cleats or braces should, as far as 
possible, be placed so that the thrust will be taken by the 
end grain of the piece, not by the side grain. The shrink- 
age of wood along the grain is practically negligible, 
and cleats or braces placed so that the compression stress 
is against the end grain, as shown in Diagram 6, fig. 1, 
will not loosen when the pieces shrink during seasoning. 
When cleats or braces are placed so that the compression 



CONSTRUCTION OF BOXES, CRATES, BALES 71 

stress is against the side grain they are very apt to 
loosen, as shown in Diagram 6, fig. 2, especially if the 
wood is not well seasoned. 

"On crates with heaw contents, it is often advisable 
to use additional vertical braces at the corners. These 
braces support the horizontal members and take some of 
the stress off the corner fastenings. Diag. 7 shows such 
vertical braces; piece 'X' is a light brace and piece 'Y' 
is a heavy brace used where extra strong support is 
desired. 

8 fee 



I 



WW 



Article to be 

Braced 



Fig. 1 




"Opening caused by fhrinfagt, 
, of bract in-Seasoning 

Fig. 
Courtesy of Safepack Mills. 

Diagram 6 

"Vertical center braces are often used on crates with 
heavy contents. These braces are usually the same thick- 
ness as the vertical end members. See Diag. 8. The cross 
member 'CM' and the scabbing 'S,' Diagram No. 9, 
serve the same purpose as the vertical center brace in 
Diagram 8. 

"In crates with heavy contents it is often necessary to 
use skid beams placed crossways on top of the skids to 
support the load. Also the shape of the contents often 
necessitates the use of skid beams, where it is impossible 
to bolt or anchor directly to the skids. Such members are 
shown in Diag. 9, marked 'SB.' Enough skid beams 
should be used to distribute the load as evenly as pos- 
sible along the skid. 

"Scabbing is a tie piece used to tie two crate mem- 
bers together to keep them from spreading. Long crates 



72 



EXPORT PACKING 



should have scabbing at each vertical cross member. 
Diag. 9 shows scabbing marked ' S. ' The scabbing should 
be placed on the inside of the members tied together, and 
should be wide enough to cover the heel of the diagonal 
braces as shown. When it is not possible, because of the 
shape of the contents of the crate, to place the scabbing 
on the inside of the members which it ties together, and 
when placing it on the outside of these members increases 
the displacement of the crate, tie rods should be used in 
place of scabbing. These tie rods should be run from 
the bottom of the skid through and engaging the top 
member. It is often necessary to use scabbing on the 
crate bottom to tie the skids together as shown in Diag. 
10. 




T3? n^ 

Courtesy of Safepaclc Mills. 

Diagram 7 




3l.«« 



• Ctmtmr Bm%\ 






flat 1 



Diagram 8 



a 



In addition to diagonally bracing the sides and ends 
of a crate, it is often advisable to brace the top diagon- 
ally. Diagram No. 11 shows the top of a crate with 
sheathing, diagonal crossed braces on top of sheathing 
and battens 'X' below sheathing to reenforce it, where 
extra wide spaces occur. Diag. 9 also shows diagonal 
braces on the crate top, marked 'TB.' " 

On heavy crates the skids should be slotted for the 
sling cable used in loading, the slots being far enough 
apart to admit of proper handling and so located that the 
load balances properly. Most crates should be metal- 
strapped, particularly at the corner joints and over 
sheathing when it is used. The strapping should be flat 
band unannealed steel, coated to prevent rust, and should 
be very tightly stretched and nailed. 



CONSTRUCTION OF BOXES, CRATES, BALES 73 

Use of Screws in Boxes and Crates. — Regarding the 
use of screws in boxes and crates, this is often advisable, 
especially in the case of boxes when it is desired to use 
the box over again, and in crates when it is desired to 




x 

Diagram 9 




Scabbing 



Skid Spread*? 



X 



Skid 
Chamfered End 



*hid 



Courtesy of Safepack Mills. 
Diagram 10 

make the crate so that it can be easily gotten into for the 
inspection of customs officials, without tearing the boards 
all to pieces in getting them off. We will first take up the 
use of screws in boxes. When it is desired to get into a 
box without tearing the boards to pieces, the top boards 
are often attached to the sides and ends and to the cleats 



74 



EXPORT PACKING 



with screws in place of nails. It is usually necessary to 
bore the first board through which the screw passes to 
avoid splitting it, and the diameter of the hole should be 
equal to the diameter of the shank of the screw. When 
the box is made of hardwood it is usually necessary to 
drill the hole the full length of the screw, and in this 
event the hole should be the same diameter as the screw 
measured at the base of the thread. 

Where the thickness of the boards in the sides and end 
of the box and in the cleats is not more than an inch, the 
size of the screws which should be used is No. 10, 11 or 12. 
Where the thickness is %", No. 8 or No. 9 should be 
used, and for y 2 " thickness No. 7 screws should be used. 




Courtesy of Safepach Mills. 
Diagram 11 

The length of the screw should be not less than twice the 
thickness* of the first board through which the screw 
passes. If screws still longer than this can be used with- 
out splitting, it is advisable. The screws should be spaced 
about the same distance apart as with nails, or possibly 
a little bit farther apart, as the screws make a stronger 
fastening than nails. Care should be taken not to drive 
any screws into joints between the boards, and screws 
should be placed far enough from the joint to prevent 
splitting into it. It is also very important not to drive 
the screws with a hammer, as is often done. The holding 
power of the screw is greatly diminished by driving it 
with a hammer, as the wood structure around the threads 
is destroyed. 

Eegarding the use of screws on crates, they are often 
used on a few of the boards, either on the sheathing or 




Courtesy of Sajepack Mills. 
Diagram 12 



75 



Rope Ai: 
to Weight 
SI j' ding To 



-j£ Slot to Re 
Iron Ba.rAtia.ched. 
To Sliding Tsp 




Courtesy of Safepack Mills. 
Diagram 14 



76 



CONSTRUCTION OF BOXES, CRATES, BALES 77 

on some of the other members to enable getting into the 
crate for inspection, without tearing the boards all to 
pieces in getting them off. In export crates this is often 
advisable so that the customs officials can open the crate 
easily for inspection purposes. The screws should be 
spaced approximately the same as the nails, and should 
be of a length not less than twice the thickness of the first 
board through which the screw passes. Where the thick- 
ness of the first board is around an inch, the size of the 
screw should be No. 10, 11 or 12. For material thicker 
than this, larger screws will have to be used, the size 
depending upon the thickness of the material. Where the 
material is over 2" thick, the use of screws is not recom- 
mended, and the use of bolts would be preferable. As in 
the case of boxes, no screws should be driven into joints, 
and screws should never be hammer driven. 

The Possibilities of Baling. — The packing of textile 
materials in machine pressed bales offers great possi- 
bilities to the exporter, from the standpoint of the re- 
duced displacement of the package. Reducing the dis- 
placement generally means a saving in packing costs, 
saving in handling charges, saving in freight and a sav- 
ing in storage charges. Baling also means a great saving 
in import duty, where the duty is levied on the gross 
weight of the package. 

The average saving in space by packing in machine 
pressed bales in place of in boxes, is around 30 per cent 
in the gross displacement of the package. This is a very 
large item where the ocean freight charges are based on 
space occupied. The War Department states in one of- 
ficial bulletin that over $50,000,000 was saved during the 
war by baling various textile articles instead of packing 
in boxes, most of this saving being in the value of the 
ship space saved. The experience of the War Depart- 
ment shows that a great variety of textile materials can 
be baled, including underwear, hosiery, sweaters, gloves, 
coats, trousers, towels, blankets, tarpaulins, tents, bed- 
ding, cloth and many other articles. It was even found 
possible to successfully bale high grade officers 9 uniforms 



78 EXPORT PACKING 

without injury from the compression, by carefully folding 
and tying the garments along the proper lines. 

The Successful Bale. — Successful baling, especially of 
small articles, depends largely upon the making of firm 
compact bales. This can be accomplished with small 
articles by careful folding and tying into small bundles, 
and bricking these bundles up into a compact bale with 
the joints between bundles broken. - The New York 
Quartermaster Depot used a " Forming Box" for this 
purpose with great success. This consists of a box with 
a head or .top which can be compressed and with an open 
front. The rectangular opening of the box is of the size 
which it is desired to make the bale. After the articles 
have been folded and tied in bundles, they are bricked up 
into the shape of the bale in the forming box. The con- 
tents are then compressed as much as possible and tied 
with strong cord at several places to hold the compres- 
sion. The package is then removed and transferred to 
the baling press, where the final compression is secured 
and the waterproof lining, burlap and steel strapping 
applied. The use of the forming box makes the forming 
of the articles into the bale an entirely separate opera- 
tion, and releases the baling machine for the compression 
service only, thus greatly increasing the output of the 
machine. 

Use of the Forming Box. — I quote the following de- 
scription of the mechanism and use of the forming box 
and baling press, from a pamphlet written by me and 
issued by the Saf epack Mills : 

"The forming box shown here is double and was de- 
signed by the New York Quartermaster Depot for the 
army size of bale, 30" x 15" x 14" to 19". Essentially it 
is a wooden box with open front and a top shelf, that can 
be pulled down by means of a hand wheel to tighten the 
bundles or pieces into a compact package of the proper 
size ready for compressing in the baling press. 

"The inside dimensions of the box are, length 29", 
width 15" and height 36". There are four slots 'x' (Dia- 
grams 12 and 13) for the four cords used to tie the pack- 



CONSTRUCTION OF BOXES, CRATES, BALES 79 

age while it is under compression. There is also a ratchet 
and pawl (Diagram 14) on the end of the hand wheel 
shaft, to hold the compression on the package while it is 
being tied. The four strings used to tie the package are 
removed when the package is in the baling press and 
are used over again." 




Courtesy of Bafepack Mills. 

Diagram 13 



Use of the Baling Press. — "After preliminary press- 
ing and tying in the forming box, the package is removed 
to the baling press for the final compression. A piece of 
burlap and a sheet of waterproof lining material are 
placed on the base of the press, and the package is placed 
upon them. Another sheet of waterproof lining material 
and a piece of burlap are then placed on top of the bale. 
(If the press is the closed type it is necessary to fold or 
roll back the ends of the burlap and waterproof lining 



80 EXPORT PACKING 

which project beyond the sides and ends of the bale, so 
that they will not be injured during the compressing.) 
The pressure is then applied, and upon completion the 
waterproof lining and burlap are folded over on the sides 
so that they lap perfectly. The bale is then bound with 
straps and the straps sealed. The pressure is then re- 
leased and the bale removed from the press for sewing. ,, 

The amount of compression which can be secured in 
any particular case depends upon the article which is 
being baled. Some materials are very compressible, 
while others are less so. The presence of metal fasten- 
ings, eyelets, buckles, hooks, etc., also affect the degree 
to which the material can be compressed. To quote 
again : 

Types of Baling Press. — "There are a number of 
different types of baling presses in use, including hand 
lever operated presses, electrical presses, hydraulic 
presses and other types of power presses. There ■ are 
also open and closed presses. The type of press which 
should be used in any particular case depends chiefly 
upon the size of the baling operation, the space available 
in the packing room and the type of goods which is being 
baled ; therefore, no definite recommendation can be given 
on this point. 

"For a small operation with an output of around 100 
bales per day, a hand lever operated press with a large 
enough chamber to make two bales at one time, is gen- 
erally satisfactory. On the other hand, for a large opera- 
tion where the output is several hundred bales per day, 
a mechanical power press making two or four bales at 
one time will prove more economical. The New York 
Quartermaster Depot, which during the war was prob- 
ably the largest baling operation in the country, used a 
number of electrically operated closed presses, each press 
making four bales at one time. In an economical baling 
operation -the presses should be kept busy all the time, 
and this should be borne in mind in selecting the type of 
press and in deciding upon the number of presses which 
are required. The press should be capable of compress- 



CONSTRUCTION OF BOXES, CRATES, BALES 81 

ing the bale to maximum density and should have a maxi- 
mum pressure of not less than 20 tons. 

c i There is considerable difference of opinion as to the 
relative merits of open and closed presses. Some army 
experts maintain that the closed press is better; they 
claim that it makes more rectangular, uniform sized bales. 
Others maintain that the open press is better because it 
is easier to get at all sides of the bale while it is under 
compression; and also because it is easier to handle the 
waterproof lining and burlap covering." 

Size of Bale. — The War Department adopted a stand- 
ard size of bale, namely, 30" long, 15" wide and with a 
height varying from 14 to 19 inches. The average weight 
of the bale was 70 to 140 lbs. This is a considerably 
smaller bale than is generally used commercially, but it 
has advantages over the larger bale. It is twice as long 
as it is wide, which makes it a good shape for storage, 
because they can be stacked up both lengthwise and cross- 
wise and make an even pile. It is of a size and weight 
which can be conveniently handled by either one or two 
men, minimizing the desire or tendency to use hooks, 
which there would be with the larger, heavier bale. It is 
of a convenient size to make, being easily and quickly 
handled into and out of the baling machine. 

Outside Covering. — Every bale should have a water- 
proof lining beneath the outside covering. This is taken 
up in detail under "Waterproofing." The material 
which is generally used for the outside covering is bur- 
lap, because of its strong binding qualities, its resistance 
to abrasion, and its comparative cheapness compared to 
other materials possessing equal qualities. The weight 
of the burlap should never be less than 10-ounce 40-inch 
basis, as the lighter burlaps do not have sufficient 
strength. Second-hand burlap should never be used as a 
covering for export bales unless it is in very good 
condition. 

Binding. — Flat steel band strapping makes a better 
binding for bales, especially bales of textile materials, 
than either rope or wire ties. When rope is used, con- 



82 EXPORT PACKING 

siderable of the compression is lost upon releasing the 
compression of the baling machine, owing to the stretch- 
ing of the rope. Also a bale bound with rope is easy to 
pilfer. Wire ties are not as strong as steel band, do not 
hold the bale as rigid owing to the smaller surface in con- 
tact with the bale, and are liable to produce cutting of 
the covering material unless slats are used between the 
wire and the burlap. Steel band should always be coated 
to prevent rust, and should be unannealed, as the unan- 
nealed strap is stronger than the annealed and will not 
stretch. The thickness and width of strap required de- 
pend on the size and weight of the bale. For bales not 
exceeding 140 lbs. gross weight and not of excessive size, 
a %" No. 26 gauge strap having a tensile strength of 
not less than 850 lbs. is satisfactory. The straps should 
be placed at frequent enough intervals to hold the com- 
pression. On the War Department bales 4 bands were 
used on a bale 30" long, the outside bands being not less 
than 4" in from the ends, and the other two spaced equi- 
distant from the end bands and from each other. The 
straps should be stretched to maximum tension with a 
mechanical stretching tool while the bale is under com- 
pression, and the ends should be securely sealed with a 
buckle or other seal which will give a strong sealed joint. 
Care should be taken to break off or fold under all loose 
ends of strap so that no spider is left projecting. 

After the bale has been strapped and removed from 
the baling machine, the burlap should be sewed up sides 
and ends with strong baling twine. Each stitch should 
be knotted and all ends of the twine should be securely 
fastened. Surplus burlap should be gathered together at 
each of the corners and sewed into ears not less than five 
inches in length. The ears serve as handles and reduce 
the tendency to handle the bale with hooks. 

Protection Against Hooks. — The danger of damage by 
hooks is one of the reasons why baling has not been 
adopted to a greater extent in packing textile materials. 

About the only protection against hooks is to line the 
bale beneath the burlap with heavy fibre board, testing, 



CONSTRUCTION OF BOXES, CRATES, BALES 83 

say, not less than 200 lbs. to the square inch, Mullen Test. 
Thin strips of lumber and veneer are also sometimes used. 
Another precaution sometimes taken is to stencil on the 
bale in large letters, "Use no hooks.' ' It is doubtful, 
however, that marking the bale in this manner helps very 
much, as many stevedores either cannot read or do not 
have time to read directions, and the words are likely to 
be unintelligible when the bale arrives in a country where 
English is not spoken. As explained in preceding para- 
graphs, placing ears on the corners of a bale also reduces 
the tendency to use hooks, as the bale can be easily 
handled by means of these ears. Another point which 
has been brought out is that if the size of bale is kept 
down to around 140 lbs., gross weight, there is not the 
tendency to use hooks that there is in the larger bale. Of 
course insurance mav be taken out covering damage from 
hooks. 

Waterproofing. — Bales containing textile materials 
are always lined beneath the outside covering of burlap 
with a waterproof covering of some sort. There are 
several materials which are used for this purpose, among 
them being waterproof tarpaulins, oilcloth, rubberized 
fabrics of various kinds and waterproof pappr. Tarpau- 
lins, rubberized fabrics and oilcloth are very strong and 
waterproof, but are also very expensive. 

Eecent developments in the manufacture of water- 
proof paper have produced papers which make satisfac- 
tory bale lining for many kinds of material. Among them 
is an expansive paper which has been much used by the 
War Department for lining bales of clothing, this paper 
having a stretch of 30 per cent in length and 6 to 12 per 
cent in width of the sheet. The ability of a bale lining 
paper to stretch is valuable, because there is considerable 
expansion of the bale between the bands when the pres- 
sure of the baling press is released, and the expansive 
paper absorbs this bulge without breaking. This expan- 
sion is greater in the height than in the width of the bale, 
so it is necessary that the paper have the greater expan- 
sion in the length of the sheet. The weight of paper gen- 



84 EXPORT PACKING 

erally used is one 60-lb. sheet, basis 24" x 36"— 480, sat- 
urated with a waterproof compound, or two 30-lb. sheets 
cemented together with a waterproof compound. Various 
waterproof compounds have been used, including wax and 
asphaltum. The compound which is used, however, 
should be capable of rendering the sheet thoroughly 
waterproof, and should not be of a character which will 
penetrate through the paper and stain the contents of 
the bale. 

Two sheets are generally used, one over the top and 
one over the bottom of the bale, and they should be of 
sufficient length and width to lap several inches on the 
sides and ends. Bales containing very valuable material 
or material very susceptible to damage, are often lined 
with 4 or even 6 sheets to insure perfect protection. 






CHAPTEE IV 
PRACTICAL NOTES ON EXPORT SHIPPING 

By M. C. Fitz Gekald, 
Manager of Transportation, General Electric Company. 

IN the belief that some of our brother .manufacturers 
may find interest and perhaps value in some of the 
practical methods which we have adopted and stand- 
ardized for the packing and shipping of electrical appa- 
ratus and supplies, I here present some principles to be 
observed in connection with the construction of the con- 
tainers, their markings and the arrangement of the ma- 
terials inside the containers. 

The General Electric Company operates on the prin- 
ciple that "The order has not been completed until the 
customer is satisfied. \ [ . 

We have tried to place ourselves in the position of the 
customer or consignee. We have studied the conditions 
of transportation, in at least three ways: first, as re- 
ported by our agents and customers — second, as reported 
by the United States Consuls both to Washington as well 
as direct to ourselves, and third, by the reports of our 
construction men and commercial men who are traveling 
the four quarters of the globe. 

The result of these studies has forced us to the con- 
clusion that the two principal features in successful ex- 
port shipping are the container and its markings. They 
are of about equal importance and to slight either one of 
these is likely to disappoint our good customers. Be- 
tween factory and destination many things can happen 
unless proper provisions are made ; and either a faulty 

85 



86 EXPORT PACKING 

container or inadequate markings may result in the fol- 
lowing : 

1 — Refusal by the steamship company to ac- 
cept the shipment, 

2 — The destruction or loss of material in 
the cargo aboard ship, 

3 — The destruction or loss of material be- 
tween ship and shore, 

4 — Accident or loss while lying on the piers, 



5— Accident or loss while traveling inland 
to point of destination. 

In getting material safely into the hands of the cus- 
tomer regardless of exposure, rough handling and delays 
and regardless of the different languages spoken by the 
employees of the carrying companies en route, we feel 
we have been quite successful. The following notes rep- 
resent good average procedure. 

Containers. — In determining the size and weight of 
containers for miscellaneous shipping, we try to adhere 
as closely as possible to a maximum gross weight of 300 
lbs. and a maximum measurement of 2' x 2' x 3'. In both 
domestic as well as export shipping, less difficulties are 
encountered with the above size and weight. However, 
there are, of course, a great many pieces of apparatus of 
much heavier weight and requiring much larger cases. 
Note, for example, reproduction of photograph No. 19, 
page 87. The gross weight of this case is 37,410 pounds, 
the net weight 31,200 pounds. The case measures 113 
inches by 73 inches by 217 inches. As to details of con- 
tainer construction, valuable data have been compiled by 
the United States Forest Products Laboratory at Madi- 
son, Wisconsin, and the War Department. 1 

In no particular do the reproductions of photographs 
which accompany this chapter require more careful ob- 
servation and study than in the evidence of the great 
care which has been taken so to strengthen the boxes as 

1 The essential features of the bulletins here in question are reprinted 
in Chapter V. 




Courtesy of General Electric Co. 

(19) Case Containing Top Half Armature. 

Note notches cut for slings, ventilating holes, band iron stretched tight nailed 
from k to 6 inches. Shipping marks appear on two sides of case which weighs 
gross 87,410 lbs., net 31,200 lbs. Height 113", width 73", length 217". 




(20 and 21) 



Courtesy of General Electric Co. 
Case of Unusually Eugged Construction. 



(Left) Side view of case. Thickness and class of lumber varies according 
to weight and nature of contents. Capable of withstanding all sorts of hard- 
ships even in transit. (Right) End view of the same case. 



87 







(22) 



Courtesy of General Electric Co. 
Packing of Armature for Converter. 



Interior of case and preparations for landing armature in case. Note water- 
proof lining of case, application of protective rust preventive compound, and 
bed of excelsior covered with oilcloth case lining prepared for body of field. 




(23) 



Courtesy of General Electric Co. 

Making a Tension Line Test. 



Armature Ms been placed in case, and distribution of weight is being tested by 
tension on string in order to equally divide weight between face of armature 
and shaft bearings. 

88 



PRACTICAL NOTES ON EXPORT SHIPPING 89 

to prevent their being crushed by superimposed weights 
and prevent collapse in the event of cases being turned 
on their sides. For example, in photograph No. 1, page 
11, the frame of this apparatus is engaged by cross 
braces which are also supported by endwise braces from 
the cross brace to the end of the case. These braces are 
held in place by nailing through the top of the box. The 
long side brace is in position where it will not increase 
the size of the container, but will provide protection in 
dissipating any strain over the whole side of the case 
should it be turned on its side. Attention is drawn to 
the corner posts shown in photograph No. 4, page 12. 
These are found necessary in cases of certain dimensions 
as a support to prevent the case from collapsing or other- 
wise being unfavorably affected by any cargo which 
might be stowed on top of it. Photograph No. 6, page 
21, illustrates the bracing in and around the yoke of a~ 
converter, which is here shown providing protection for it 
regardless of the manner in which it may ^be handled ; in 
other words, if it is thrown on its side or end there is 
no serious damage likely to result. The welding ma- 
chine shown in photograph No. 9, page 31, is shown 
shipped complete with top mechanisms, because these 
mechanisms require adjustment and if removed the cus- 
tomer might have' considerable trouble. The result is, 
there is a considerable empty space in the box and in 
order to protect the contents properly, cribbing supports 
have to be built which also ensure against the top col- 
lapsing from cargo load. The framing shown in photo- 
graph No. 12, page 32, is required in order that the case 
may be as rigid at the top as at the bottom so that should 
it ride on side, end or top, it would still retain its rect- 
angular form. The use of corner posts already referred 
to will further be observed in photograph No. 18, page 
52. These heavy corner posts are capable of support- 
ing any load in cargo stowage, and the box itself is made 
of two thicknesses of lumber nailed together, one at right 
angles to the other, the nails being clinched. The inner 
course is made shorter than the outer course at each of 



90 EXPORT PACKING 

the joints a distance to correspond with the thickness of 
the lumber used, so that the sides and ends come together 
at each joint with a step joint. The cover meets the sides 
and the ends in the same manner. This method of join- 
ing sides, ends and top together provides a strong joint 
and easy means of adequate and substantial nailing. It 
should be observed that this piece of apparatus weighs 
over 15 tons. Good illustrations of containers of the most 
rugged construction capable of withstanding all sorts of 
hardships in transit, are shown in photographs No. 20, 
page 87, and No. 21, page 87, showing end view and 
side view, the thickness and class of lumber being varied 
to correspond with the weight and nature of the contents. 

The use of a crate in packing certain forms of machin- 
ery is illustrated in photographs No. 7, page 22, and 
No. 6, page 21. The crate provides a visual survey of 
the contents. It is believed to provide a reasonable 
amount of protection for semi-fragile material where the 
contents are of such a character that the risk of pilfering 
does not have to be considered. Another use of the crate 
may be noted in photograph No. 30, page 100. In this 
example the sides of the crate are of very light, springy 
construction, introducing shock absorbing qualities, and 
it is believed that when packing apparatus of the char- 
acter of that shown the cases should be made as light as 
possible consistent with the safe carrying of the appar- 
atus, so that the effect of blows will be the minimum. 

Shape of Container. — Wherever possible the container 
should have the shape of a cube — all dimensions the same. 
The advantage of this construction is that it allows the 
case to ride in the position in which it lands, whereas if 
one dimension is much less than the others, the case will 
receive many more shocks from falling or tipping over 
while in transit. 

It is sometimes desirable or necessary to depart from 
the preferred rectangular shape of container and build 
special cases of modified designs, very especially when 
it is necessary that the cases, if possible, ride on their 
bottoms. Photograph No. 16, page 42, for example, 



PRACTICAL NOTES ON EXPORT SHIPPING 91 

shows a case in "A" shape. The accompanying photo- 
graph No. 15, page 42, shows the contents of this case, 
a switchboard, with the two ends and side of the case in 
position. This "A" shape is adopted in order to suggest 
its riding in an upright position, although if it were to 
be turned over it is doubtful if any injury would be done 
the switchboard, which is to be delivered to the customer 
without being knocked down. So far as possible, the 
"A" bracing is fastened to the case. The "A" frame 
support, and the cross tie were found necessary in order 
to prevent the switchboard from turning over. The same 
result is sought in the use of the fan extensions at the 
bottom of the crate shown in photograph No. 30, page 
100, which indicate the position in which the crate is to 
ride. Observe also the handle at the top which is to indi- 
cate the manner in which the crate is to be handled. 
Photograph No. 28, page 99, shows an odd shape of 
packing, the same being the complete boxing of the ap- 
paratus shown in photograph No. 27, page 94. Atten- 
tion is here drawn to the boxing, or housing, over the 
extended shaft. 

Protection from Moisture.— The case should be lined 
with waterproof or moisture-proof covering, particularly 
if the contents are such as could be damaged by water 
or dampness. Even when material is proof against dam- 
age by moisture, it is nevertheless desirable to line the 
cases, for it provides the protection which allows the 
materials to arrive in a clean condition and new in ap- 
pearance — a feature highly desirable in the marketing of 
any product. This case lining should be of a quality and 
a strength consistent with the nature of the contents and 
the weight and size of the case. 

In large cases the lining material should be strong on 
account of the excessive shrinkage; also a large case is 
more easily racked (thrown out of rectangular shape) 
and this tendency imposes severe strains on the case 
lining. The case lining should be fastened to the inside 
of the box only sufficiently to hold lining in place, i. e., 
should be free from it — a method which prevents the 



92 , EXPORT PACKING 

lining from being subjected to strains produced by 
shocks, racking or shrinkage. 

Additional Protection. — In addition to waterproof 
case linings mentioned above, the apparatus or contents 
should be securely covered with waterproof cloth or a 
good grade of waterproof paper securely fastened to the 
contents. 

The practice of making a double case and placing the 
waterproofing between the two thicknesses of lumber is 
ineffective and a waste of both time and material, for 
as the lumber shrinks, the waterproofing becomes torn 
at the joint — the very place where it is really wanted. 
But when the cases are lined on the inside, allowing a 
fullness of material and fastened only sufficiently to in- 
sure its remaining in place, this constitutes an effective 
covering which is not likely to be destroyed by the shrink- 
ing of the lumber or the racking of the case. 

As illustrating practical methods of using case linings 
and otherwise rendering machinery proof against dam- 
age from humidity as well as water, attention is drawn 
to the reproductions of numerous photographs showing 
the packing methods employed by this company. For 
example, photograph No. 1, page 11, illustrates how 
case and skid are lined with cotton covered waterproof 
treated paper on the inside so that it will not be affected 
by the shrinkage of the lumber. In photograph No. 3, 
page 12, it will be noted that the skid has been lined 
with cotton covered waterproof paper. The case shown 
in photograph No. 18, page 52, is lined on the inside 
and before final closing the apparatus is thoroughly cov- 
ered with carriage cloth securely fastened. Photograph 
No. 17, page 51, is another illustration of the same sta- 
tionary armature and in this photograph it will be noticed 
that the skid has been covered with cotton covered water- 
proof paper. The oil cloth case lining covering a bed 
of excelsior will be observed in photograph No. 22, page 
88. This same case is lined with cotton covered water- 
proof paper on the inside so that it will not be affected 
by any shrinkage of the wood. It is regarded as a mis- 




(24) 



Courtesy of General Electric Co. 
Partly Completed Case for Armature. 



Armature is clamped in place, wedged at each end, and shaft is thoroughly 
slushed. 




(25) 



Courtesy of General Electric Co. 
Another Method for Providing for Use of Slings. 



Armature completely boxed and ready for shipment. Note horns provided for 
engaging slings. Later practice cuts -off these horns and provides slots on 
under side of skid for slinging. 



93 



i&t 




Courtesy of General Electric Co. 
(26) Method of Skidding Yoke of Converter. 

Note application of rust preventive compound to machined surfaces of yoke 
and to skid where such surfaces rest. 




Courtesy of General Electric Co. 
(27) Packing of Rotating Element with Shaft. 

Note bearing under shaft close to field, and further at end of extended shaft, 
this latter carrying no weight. Cradle padded with excelsior and covered with 
oilcloth case lining. Observe blocking held in place by angular braces making 
contents a solid mass. For detailed description of method employed see text. 

94 



PRACTICAL NOTES ON EXPORT SHIPPING 95 

take to place waterproof paper between the two thick- 
nesses of lumber because when that lumber shrinks it 
will carry the paper with it, destroying its value as 
waterproofing. Again in photograph No. 27, page 94, 
there appears an example of an excelsior padding cov- 
ered with oil cloth case lining. 

Preventing Rust and Mildew. — Cases containing 
machines or a large body of metal should be properly 
ventilated. The old way of tightly enclosing them in 
order to exclude moisture has been proven to be a mis- 
take. Ventilating can be done by boring two rows of two 
inch holes. One row of holes should be at convenient^ 
points near the top and another row near the bottom on 
sides or ends of containers. There should also be a few 
holes in the bottom to permit the escape of water which 
may wash in through the ventilating holes. The holes 
should be covered by a piece of wire screen, of approxi- 
mately one-half inch mesh, nailed to the inside of the case 
in order to prevent the entrance of mice or rats ; and the 
•ventilating holes should be from 18 to 24 inch centers, 
depending on the mass of metal. 

In addition to the wire screen another provision may 
be made on the inside of the case behind the holes. When 
water swashes inside these holes or a driving rain pene- 
trates, means must be taken for preventing this water 
from reaching the contents. A tin, sheet iron or zinc de- 
flector is nailed over the inside of each hole securely fas- 
tened to the case. This deflector, or metal baffler, is about 
8" long and is larger at the top than at the bottom; 
roughly it resembles one-half of a cone split longitudin- 
ally with flanges for nailing. The deflector should be cen- 
tered with respect to the holes. This not only prevents 
the water from striking the contents but also directs the 
water downward along the sides of the case where it can 
run out of the bottom holes. 

Many examples are to be noted among the reproduc- 
tions of photographs accompanying this chapter of the 
fashion in which it has been found desirable to ventilate 
cases containing machines or large masses of metal in 



96 EXPORT PACKING 

order to prevent rust and mildew. Ventilating holes cov- 
ered by wire screens will be observed in photograph 
No. 1, page 11, and in the photograph of the same ma- 
chine fully boxed, photograph No. 2, page 11. This 
shows the ventilating holes from the outside. Other sim- 
ilar photographs of completed cases give illustrations of 
ventilating holes provided to prevent the accumulation 
of moisture by condensation and to relieve the air pres- 
sure on the inside of the case. 

Metal Containers. — The practice of shipping miscel- 
laneous material in metal containers or metal lined con- 
tainers has been abandoned by us except when specially 
requested by our customers. Metal containers and metal 
linings do not prevent rust. Not only is this metal likely 
to be punctured by nails, or have the seams opened up 
by rough handling, twisting or racking the case in transit, 
but it has been found that pin holes are likely to occur in 
the soldering even when the container has been carefully 
handled or even not handled at all. 

Self-Sealing Pitch Covered Canvas. — Instead of- the 
metal containers, we now use self-sealing pitch covered 
canvas, which will not crack from cold and which is ren- 
dered even more flexible by heat. Its flexibility prevents 
puncturing, and being also very tough, the covering will 
not rip even if the case racks. This has been found the 
best for waterproof covering for shipments to be carried 
on the backs of burros or for muleback transportation, or 
where material is transported in an open boat, or is re- 
quired to stand in the open without cover. 

Protecting Nickeled and Bright Parts. — Bright brass, 
copper or nickeled parts can be properly protected by 
wrapping securely with soft paper free from sulphur. 
Bright steel parts should be thoroughly cleaned and dried 
and coated with rust preventive compound — not vaseline 
or white lead and tallow, or any of the so-called * ' home 
preparations.' ' There are many good preparations 
made especially for this purpose which are now on the 
market. 

A number of evidences of the way in which bright 



PRACTICAL NOTES ON EXPORT SHIPPING 97 

parts of machinery have been protected before and dur- 
ing packing will be observed among the accompanying 
photographs. In photograph No. 3, page 12, it will 
be noted that the bearing parts of the skids which are 
to come in contact with the finished parts of the machine 
have been covered with rust preventive. The same piece 
of apparatus is illustrated in photograph No. 6, page 
21, in which there is to be observed the oare which has 
been exercised in covering the parts that have been treat- 
ed with rust preventive. In photograph No. 17, page 
51, it will again be noted that the machined surface of 
joints where the upper and lower halves come together, 
is being thoroughly covered with rust preventive com- 
pound immediately before the apparatus is landed on the 
skid. The part of the skid on which it comes to rest will 
also be covered with the same compound. At the point 
where the shaft is to rest, shown in photograph No. 22, 
page 88, stains will be noted. These are from the slush- 
ing compound or rust preventive with which the wood at 
these points has been treated. Over this is placed a piece 
of zinc which is also covered with slush. In addition, 
the shaft is covered so that there is no possible lack of 
slushing compound at or near the point where the shaft 
rests. The same armature in another stage of packing 
is shown in photograph No. 24, page 93, vhere it will be 
noted that the shaft has been thoroughly slushed from 
one end to the other. Dark colored stains showing where 
machined surfaces have been covered with a compound 
for the prevention of rust are also to be noted in photo- 
graph No. 26, page 94. It will once more be noted here 
that the yoke bearing is in process of being covered with 
rust preventive, which will also be applied to that part 
of the skids where these bearings come to rest. In pho- 
tograph No. 27, page 94, it will be noted that the shaft 
is carefully slushed under the bearings. The method 
followed is that in the first place the hollowed out wood 
section of the skid in which the shaft is to rest is covered 
thoroughly with a rust preventive. In this space is 
placed a piece of zinc of adequate length and width to 



98 EXPORT PACKING 

encircle the shaft and this is also treated with rust pre- 
ventive, while the shaft itself before being placed in the 
bearing is also treated. 

Shock Absorbers. — When cushioning or shock absorb- 
ing material is required between articles in the case, or 
between the contents and the case, there is a danger in 
the improper use of excelsior, hay, straw, paper, sawdust 
and similar material; for the person doing the packing 
may not provide the proper kind of cushion or the proper 
amount of cushioning material. However, a cushion of 
felt or cellular paper, or a wrapping of the enclosed 
articles therein, can be made to insure a definite or fixed 
cushion. 

Among the photographs accompanying this article 
there will be noted several examples of the use of shock 
absorbing material and devices. For example, in photo- 
graph No. 11, page 32, observe the bed of excelsior 
which has been made to conform to the shape of the coils. 
The next photograph, No. 12, page 32, showing a crate 
of these coils illustrates the cushioning and the way in 
which a timber is placed between each row of coils. This 
timber has been padded at top and bottom with heavy 
felt. It is separated at the ends by a block so that all of 
the several courses of coils are held in place by the clamp- 
ing arrangement, although each row or course is self- 
sustaining. Photographs No. 23, page 88, and No. 24, 
page 93, show how a bed has been prepared from timber 
shaped out to the arc of the armature body and of a width 
to engage the body of the armature. This is covered with 
excelsior and afterward with oilcloth. A similar bed or 
cradle is to be noted in photograph No. 27, page 94, 
which has been shaped out, covered with excelsior as a 
padding and then with a piece of oilcloth case lining. A 
different and unique as well as ingenious method of pack- 
ing fragile goods for protection against shocks is illus- 
trated in photograph No. 29, page 100. It will be noted 
that the X-ray tube here shown is suspended in cotton 
ticking ribbons which are drawn up so as to engage the 
sides of the crate, introducing additional spring or shock 




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PRACTICAL NOTES ON EXPORT SHIPPING 101 

absorbing qualities, these sides being made of about %- 
inch lumber. As evidence of the success of this packing, 
it may be said that about 4,000 of these X-ray tubes were 
shipped overseas during the last year of the World War 
with resulting breakage amounting to only about one- 
tenth of 1 per cent. 

Partitions Inside Cases. — Cross partitioning is a fea- 
ture which provides protection to the contents of cases. 
These partitions can be either lateral or longitudinal and 
should be fixed in position by nailing, either through the 
sides or the ends of the case. This method prevents the 
contents of the case from surging, for when the case gets 
a severe jar on one end, cross partitions prevent the blow 
imparted by the whole weight of the contents being de- 
livered to the articles at the bottom. Partitions also add 
strength and rigidity to the case. 

A good example of the commonest way in which par- 
titions may be used in export packing cases is to be noted 
in photograph No. 31, page 100, which shows the packing 
of a transformer lead made of porcelain and metal, the 
metal section being a sleeve shown between partitions 
A and B. The balance of the lead is made up of sections 
of porcelain fastened together by cement. The section 
from partition C to the end of the case is a glass globe 
or oil indicator, the center of this lead being filled with 
oil. This lead weighs about 700 pounds net. It could not 
be handled in a horizontal position without protection, 
for otherwise it would break of its own weight. Parti- 
tions A, B and C are fastened against a metal shoulder 
which prevents the lead from moving. Other forms of 
packing to guard against the shifting of machines inside 
of cases are to be noted in many of the accompanying 
photographs. Note, for example, in No. 1, page 11, 
that in addition to bolting the machine to the skid, 
it is blocked both longitudinally and laterally so as to re- 
lieve from a shearing strain the bolts holding the machine 
to the skid. Similar protection is notable in photograph 
No. 8, page 22, in which attention may be drawn to 
the fact that the shaft is blocked at the end, the block 



102 EXPORT PACKING 

being fastened through the outside of the box. In pho- 
tograph No. 18, page 52, attention is called to the five 
sets of braces equally spaced around the piece, engaging 
the piece at the center where it is strongest and extend- 
ing to each side of the case. This will be securely nailed 
through the side of the case in order to provide a support 
for the piece, and prevent the throwing of severe lever- 
age on the bolts which fasten the load to the skid, in the 
event that the case happens to be turned on its side during 
transportation. Photograph No. 24, page 93, shows an 
armature clamped in place and wedged at each end. Very 
valuable hints are to be found in photograph No. 27, 
page 94. It should be noted that in addition to the cradle 
which supports the body of the field, bearings are also 
provided under the shaft on each side close to the field 
and a further bearing is provided at the end of the ex- 
tended shaft, which is simply a balancing bearing and 
carries no weight. The blocking on each side of the field, 
providing the bearings, is held in position by angular 
braces on the outside and, being wedged on the inside 
between the field body and this blocking, makes the entire 
container and its contents a solid mass and prevents any 
movement of the field in the container. Attention is 
called to the character of these angular braces on the out- 
side. They are let into the skid at the toe and at the other 
end support the wall of the cribbing and the timber, pro- 
viding the bearing for the shaft, with crow foot construc- 
tion. These are securely nailed at the ends but since this 
photograph was taken the experience of the manufac- 
turer has shown that it is necessary further to fasten 
these braces and this has been accomplished by scabbing 
the toe to the skid. The scab consists of a one inch or 
one and a quarter inch board nailed over the joint which 
engages the brace and the skid. 

Floating Fragile Material. — Delicate apparatus can 
often to advantage be packed in a lightly constructed case 
and this case "floated" in excelsior or other packing 
material inside of an outer case. This very effective 
cushion of excelsior between the inner and the outer case 



PRACTICAL NOTES ON EXPORT SHIPPING 103 

should be made of a thickness to correspond with the 
nature and weight of the contents. 

An illustration of how fragile materials may be care- 
fully packed in a case which is then "floated" inside of 
an outside container, should be carefully studied. In 
photograph No. 32, page 105, the manner in which the 
contents of the inner case is protected from shifting has 
already been described under " partitions. ' ' This case 
is enclosed in an outer case as shown in the photograph 
with a cushion of excelsior about 5 inches thick on all 
sides, ends, top and bottom. Other ways in which fragile 
goods receive adequate packing are illustrated in photo- 
graph No. 29, page 100, which so far as the cotton ticking 
ribbon supports are concerned has been already described 
under the heading of " shock absorbers.' ' It is further 
notable (see also photograph No. 30, page 100), that the 
crate is of very light construction so that any jar im- 
parted by handling would be more like the blow of a tack 
hammer than the blow of a sledge hammer, as it might 
be in case the crate were made of heavier lumber and the 
weight increased. A point to be carefully observed in 
the packing* of apparatus of this character is to make the 
case as light as possible consistent with the safe carrying 
of the apparatus. 

No Loose Small Parts. — Wrenches, accessories, other 
tools or small parts are often enclosed in the case with a 
machine. These, however, should always be securely fas- 
tened, because they are likely to do severe damage due 
to their movement inside the case during transportation 
and handling. 

The best method is to place these small parts in a 
box and then to have the box, not only nailed, but also 
fastened by band iron to the skid or the inside of the 
box. Heavy boxes should be both spiked and strapped to 
the skid. The lighter boxes should be nailed and strapped 
to the sides, end or top. 

The accompanying photographs, No. 34, page 106, 
and No. 36, page 111, illustrate in a general way the 
fashion in which parts may be packed in cases contain- 



104 EXPORT PACKING 

ing the main apparatus. This shipment consists of a 
36 inch searchlight mounted on a Ford chassis. It was 
necessary to forward the outfit as nearly as possible 
in completely assembled condition, while at the same 
time the cost of space on cargo ships was so high that 
it was very important to minimize the cubical dimensions 
of the shipment. The wheels were therefore removed 
from the chassis and the projector was mounted on a skid. 
The wheels were fastened on the inside of the case as 
shown and the accessories were packed in separate boxes, 
etc., and arranged on the interior of the general packing 
case in the fashion illustrated. The one case therefore 
contained the complete outfit. Attention is also drawn 
to photograph No. 15, page 42, in which the box con- 
taining sundries will be noticed firmly attached inside the 
general packing case. 

Battens. — Battens on cases are highly desirable, par- 
ticularly if the case contains a heavy load. No end bat- 
tens should be less than three-quarters of an inch in 
thickness and two inches in width. For heavy loads and 
where rough handling is to be expected, it has been found 
well to provide four mitred end battens. 

Banding Iron. — In order to protect the nailing of the 
case, no case should ever be forwarded for export unless 
it is provided with end battens and banded with rust- 
proof band iron. The band iron, if of proper quality and 
properly put on, will arrest many shocks which otherwise 
would be imparted to the nailing of the box. Therefore, 
the band iron should not be put on directly over the nails 
if the best results are to be obtained ; but back from the 
nailing in the direction of the center of the box, up to a 
distance of six inches from the nailing on large cases. 
The exact distance should be determined by the condi- 
tions that will admit of proper nailing of the band iron. 
These nails should be from four to six inches apart, but 
care should be taken not to drive the nails through the 
case at points where they may damage the contents. All 
of our banding iron is enameled so as to make it proof 
against rust, and we make it a practice of banding all of 





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106 



PRACTICAL NOTES ON EXPORT SHIPPING 107 

our export cases, both large and small, heavy and light. 
More on the subject of " Banding Iron" will be found 
under the heading of " Skidding." What is true of 
fairly light cases is also true of skidded cases — they both 
need band iron. These bands are drawn tightly — as 
tight as a fiddle string — and they are well nailed. 

But to improperly band a case is worse than not band- 
ing it at all. The band iron soon arranges itself in fes- 
toons or loops, if not properly tightened and fastened. 
These loops catch on and damage other cases. They also 
make a convenient loop for the stevedores' hooks and 
hence the damage is cumulative. In many other ways, 
loose band iron promotes rough usage and creates addi- 
tional hazards. 

Unannealed band iron is superior to the annealed. 
The former can be easily nailed through, it is much 
stronger and it will not stretch as will the annealed. The 
band iron on a case performs its real function when the 
case is subjected to a severe strain by shock or great 
pressure ; so it will be seen that as the band iron stretches 
upon those occasions, it will not protect the nailing of the 
case as it should. 

Abandoned Wire for Cases. — In past years we used 
braided, twisted, single and double strand round wire for 
banding large cases. However, we have ceased to use this 
method as it was found to fall short of the requirements 
for strengthening cases. For some small cases contain- 
ing light loads we still use some "wire bound" boxes 
which are satisfactory when strengthened by additional 
nailing. 

Markings. — A feature of the greatest importance in 
marking cases is the quality of the marking fluid. This 
fluid should be indelible and of a character that can not 
be easily removed or blurred by rubbing. The containers 
must often stand next to a bale of cotton cloth, which 
due to vibration may erase the markings in transit. 

In addition to being indelible and difficult to remove, 
the fluid should be quick drying so that the cases or bales 
can be handled soon after without risk to the marking. 



108 EXPORT PACKING 

All shipments should be marked with stencil, the size 
of letters corresponding to the size of the container. 
Where possible the container should be marked with a 
case number and the shipping address on two sides. On 
the sides of the case bearing the address, there should be 
no other markings except the number of the case. How- 
ever, in very large cases which must be handled with lift- 
ing devices, it is permissible to show slinging positions 
and the center of gravity by center lines. Elsewhere on 
the case — preferably on the ends — may be shown the 
gross weight, the net weight, the measurements of the 
case, and other marks such as may be required. The case 
number should always be preceded by the words "Case 
number." The case number and the port marking should 
always be made to stand out boldly in larger figures and 
letters. 

Numerous photographs are reproduced in connection 
with this chapter, showing desirable ways of marking 
cases. Photograph No. 19, page 87, illustrates marking 
on cases to call attention to the points where the sling 
cables should be applied. The shipping marks on this 
case appear on two sides and no other marks excepting 
the case number and the handling marks appear on the 
sides. Marking on the case shown in photograph No. 38, 
page 111, also indicates points where the slings are to be 
placed. Also note marking at top of case in French, 
English and Spanish with arrow indicating the top. It 
will be noted in photograph No. 33, page 105, that this 
case has been marked in several places "porcelain" and 
' l fragile. ' ' This evidently was done by the packing men 
from force of habit in marking domestic shipments. For 
export such markings as "porcelain," "fragile," 
"handle with care" are practically of no use in providing 
any help in the way of notice to stevedores as to the na- 
ture of contents. In loading and discharging ships no 
time is taken to read such notices and at many ports to 
which shipments are forwarded such marking would not 
be understood. 

Branding. — With a real indelible fluid it is unneces- 



PRACTICAL NOTES ON EXPORT SHIPPING 109 

sary to brand the cases with a branding iron; however, 
metal dies are used to accomplish practically the same 
result as branding and at the same time eliminate the fire 
risk. These dies may be procured in different sizes to 
correspond with the sizes of the cases to be marked. They 
have a sharp edge which is coated with marking ink by 
saturating a piece of felt with the ink and working the 
die into it by hand. After being coated with ink the die 
is driven into the wood of the box by a hammer. This 
has been found equal to branding, and quicker, cheaper 
and safer. 

Marks on the cases such as "Fragile," "Glass," 
"Handle with care," "This side up," etc., etc, are of 
practically no avail in procuring special service or special 
care in handling the material. The materials must be so 
packed that the container riding in any position will with- 
stand the maximum hazards of export transportation. 

Skidding. — The strength of the skid lies entirely with- 
in the skid itself and receives very little additional 
strength from the container. In figuring the strength of 
the skid the packer should entirely ignore the container. 
A container built up on a weak skid is like a building on 
a faulty foundation. A chain is only as strong as its 
weakest link and a container is only as strong as the skids 
which form its backbone. While the container adds prac- 
tically no strength to the skids, yet if the skids are broken 
it racks and wrecks the entire container as well as the 
apparatus being shipped. Or if the skids should spring 
or bend, the entire case will probably be destroyed. The 
skid is the strategic point of the container. It is a curious 
thing how the same human being who hesitates to put a s 
few more inches of lumber in the skids where it is abso- 
lutely essential, is likely to lavish lumber on the balance 
of the container. Lumber put in the skids is a factor of 
safety — it is container insurance. 

How Skids Break. — Whenever a container is lifted 
from one end or from one corner, the skid is likely to 
break or spring and ruin the container. Whenever the 
container is rested on one roller, in the middle or on two 



110 EXPORT PACKING 

rollers, one at either end, the skid is likely to break or 
spring. Instances have even been known where skids 
have broken or sprung because the container was merely 
laid down upon an uneven surface. 

Containers are frequently broken, due to damaged 
skids resulting from the apparatus being improperly 
bolted to the skid. We make it a rule to have no square 
bolt heads projecting beyond the lower surface of the 
skids. The bolt holes should be countersunk and the bolt 
put in from the bottom so that the square head will not 
project and interfere with the passage of the skid over 
the rollers. Round headed bolts are also desirable for 
this reason. In either case the bolt should project through 
the apparatus and have the nut at the top. Sometimes 
wood clamps are used for fastening containers to skids, 
but they should be of hard wood and strong. 

Containers should be so built that they will not be 
racked if the stevedores make their donkey sling-hitch 
at a point above the skids. Therefore, the sides, ends and 
top should be strong, and unless they are reenforced by 
cribbing or bracing of contents, the high hitching will 
likely damage them. 

But the skidding is important for still other reasons. 
Not only must the entire container be of sufficient 
strength to withstand the various shocks of transporta- 
tion, but it must be able to stand up under the strain of 
cargo storage while in the hold of the ship. 

In the accompanying photograph No. 17, page 51, 
it will be noted that there are three bearings for the piece, 
one at each end and one in the center, this center bearing 
also preventing the bending or breaking of the skids in 
the event of its being moved by rollers or resting on an 
uneven surface. 

Fine Points in Case Construction. — Where the con- 
tents of a skidded container is of such a character that 
it may be injured by racking due to pressure at the top, 
there should be provided supporting posts from skid to 
underside of cover, securely nailed through casing. 

The ends of the case should rest on the skids and be 






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Courtesy of General Electric Co. 
(37) Complete Projector in Case. 
Note how searchlight and accessories are made a compact mass. 



112 



PRACTICAL NOTES ON EXPORT SHIPPING 113 

nailed to the binder or cross tie. The sides of the case, 
however, require different treatment for the best results. 
Although the inside or horizontal course should rest on 
the skid, the outer or vertical course should be longer, 
thus it can be made to overlap the skid and extend down 
almost but not quite, to the bottom of the skid. But 
there is another reason which is not so apparent, and 
that is it enables the container better to resist compres- 
sion of a heavy cargo placed on top. These side boards 
are brought down within about a quarter of an inch of the 
bottom of the skid so that when the strain of the weight 
of storage is imposed, the strength of the box need not 
depend entirely on the strength of the holding power of 
the nails ; for, as the nails give or bend a little, this form 
of construction allows these vertical side boards to take 
up the load. The heavy weight on top of the case and 
the resulting slight giving of the nails permit the sides 
of the case to come to rest on practically the same level 
as the bottom of the skid; thus the container is saved 
from collapse. A distance of one quarter to three 
eighths of an inch has been found sufficient as a clear- 
ance between the bottom of the skid and the bottom of 
the vertical boards, which compose the outer course of 
the sides of the case. But these side boards should not 
be so long as to interfere with rollers, and should be kept 
above the bottom of the skid for the same reason that the 
square heads of the bolts are not allowed to project 
downward. 

Don't Use Lag Screws. — In the construction of skids, 
do not use lag screws and in fastening apparatus or other 
articles to skids, do not use lag screws. Also in fastening 
the bracings in all shipping and packing work, do not 
use lag screws but use bolts. Even nailing is preferable 
to lag screws, as it is most difficult to draw a lag screw 
"home" without overdoing it, A single turn or even a 
part of a turn on a lag screw after being properly set, 
practically destroys its holding power. 

Slinging.— Wherever possible, large cases or pieces 
which must be handled with lifting devices, should have 



114 EXPORT PACKING 

provision made for slinging. When the horizontal 
center of gravity of container is off the center of meas- 
urements, we provide slots in the skids and mark the 
cases at those points " Sling here." In addition we pro- 
vide a center line on each side of the case indicating the 
center of gravity and so stencil it on the case. 

In photograph No. 1, page 11, it will be noticed that 
the skids are slotted at each end. This is for the slinging. 
The same feature will be observed in numerous others 
of the accompanying illustrations. Another way of pro- 
viding for the use of slings is illustrated in photograph 
No. 25, page 93. However, since this photograph was 
taken an improvement has been made over this method. 
The horns or extensions which are shown in the photo- 
graph as engaging the slings are cut off and the under- 
side of the skid is slotted for slinging. This reduces the 
cost of shipping to the extent of the measurement of the 
horns previously used since, of course, steamship com- 
panies figure cubic measurements over all extreme dimen- 
sions. In photograph No. 27, page 94, especially care- 
ful attention should be directed to the location of the slots 
in the skids which are cut out for slinging the apparatus, 
the center of gravity being midway between the two slots. 

The strings which are shown in one of the photo- 
graphs, No. 23, page 88, are placed under the bearings in 
the process of packing rotating elements for electrical 
apparatus and are for testing (application of weight 
applied to the several bearings in order that we may 
determine whether the strain as imparted by the load 
going into the container is being equally distributed to the 
three bearing points. 

The cribbing made to take the shaft bearings is a 
solid wood mass built so as to engage this shaft. Now 
before placing the load into the carrier or container, 
these strings are placed under each of the three bearings 
and as the load is lowered into the container, by the 
tension applied to these strings we are able to detect 
the equalization of pressure between the three points 
of bearings. 



CHAPTER V 

OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS-EXPERT 
INSTRUCTIONS 

TREMENDOUS progress in the science of export 
packing was made during the course of the World 
War, and the lessons to be derived from the exact 
and specific instructions issued by the War Department 
of the United States Government are certain to ensure 
a marked improvement in the packing practices of man- 
ufacturers and shippers in general. Probably in no other 
country has the export packing problem been attacked so 
scientifically and in so thoroughgoing a fashion as in 
the United States, where national needs from the outset 
of the war brought officials face to face with problems of 
overseas shipping which were not encountered by other 
nations. The results of official study, painstaking inves- 
tigations and comparison, the researches of the Forest 
Products Laboratory, plus the ingenious inventions of 
men called into the service of the army in devising the 
best possible packing methods — these all resulted in the 
publication of official specifications by the War Depart- 
ment and in a great deal of consequent and subsequent 
literature, based on these experiences and researches, 
which it is believed ought to be preserved in permanent 
fashion. Important excerpts are here included, with the 
conviction that the matter reprinted in this chapter will 
be found vital by every manufacturer or shipper dis- 
posed to give serious attention to this most important 
problem. 

Certain duplications have been omitted from the of- 
ficial specifications reprinted in this chapter because iden- 
tical advices or instructions appear in other chapters. It 
is none the less quite natural that there should be some 
repetitions of observations and instructions both among 

115 



116 EXPORT PACKING 

the documents themselves, which are now reprinted, and 
in the several other chapters of this book. It has been 
thought desirable to include many such repetitions, not 
only because sometimes involving slight variations in 
phraseology, but also because many of the problems dealt 
with merit repeated emphasis. 

The documents which follow include extracts from the 
War Department specifications on making boxes and 
packing in boxes; a pamphlet on the same subject by 
Capt. Knowlton, issued by the Saf epack Mills ; the War 
Department specifications on the making of crates, on 
baling and on marking ; an article from i i The Barrel and 
Box" on the nailing of boxes; technical notes from the 
Forest Products Laboratory, etc. 

Standard Boxing Specifications of the 
Wae Depaetment 

Nailed and locked corner boxes must be well manu- 
factured from lumber which is sound (free from decay 
and dote) and well seasoned. Lumber must be free from 
knot holes and from loose or rotten knots greater than 
one inch in diameter. Knots whose diameter exceed one- 
third the width of the board will not be permitted, and no 
knots will be permitted which interfere with the proper 
nailing of the box. 

For these specifications, well-seasoned lumber has an 
average moisture content of 12 to 18 per cent based on 
the weight of the wood after oven drying. To determine 
this moisture content weigh a piece of material before 
and after oven drying to a constant weight, dry at 100° 
C. (212° F.), and divide the difference in weights by the 
lesser X 100. 

Width of Lumber. — (a) Any end, side, top, or bottom 
6 inches or less in width should be one-piece stock. 

(b) No piece less than 2% inches face width shall be 
used in any part, except for cleats. 

(c) The maximum number of pieces allowed in any 
end, side, top, or bottom more than 6 inches wide should 



OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 111 

be as follows (narrow pieces should always be placed 
in the center of the ends, sides, top, or bottom) : 

Maximum number 
Width of face of pieces 

Six inches and under 1 

Over 6-10 inches, inclusive 2 

Over 10-15 inches, inclusive 3 

Over 15-20 inches, inclusive 4 

Over 20-25 inches, inclusive , 5 

Over 25 inches 6 

Surfacing 1 . — All material must be surfaced one or two 
sides. When surfaced one side the surfaced side shall 
be the outside. 

Joining. — Ends 1 inch or less in thickness should be 
either cleated or butt joined and fastened with not less 
than three corrugated fasteners, two driven from one side 
and one from the opposite side. Cleats should be not 
less than 2 inches wide and should have a minimum thick- 
ness of five-eighths inch. Triangular cleats of not less 
than three-fourths inch face measurement are permitted. 

Nails. — All nails should be standard cement coated 
box nails. Plain nails driven through and clinched may 
be used for cleating. 

The size of the nail shall depend upon the species and 
the thickness of the lumber in which the points of the 
nails are held. 

When the nail specified for use under these specifica- 
tions is not obtainable, use the next penny lower, and 
increase the number of nails in each nailing edge by one. 

1 Metal Bindings. — All packing boxes for over-seas 
service must be strap ironed. Strapping shall be cold 
rolled unannealed steel not less than five-eighths inch 
wide by 0.015 thick, treated to prevent rust, and shall 
have a tensile strength of not less than 850 pounds. The 
treatment must be of a character to prevent injury to 
strapping when bent or nailed. 

Strapping placed at least 1 inch from each end is 
preferred, with double corner nails and such additional 
nails or staples holding straps to sides, top, and bottom 

1 See Capt. Knowlton's observation and recommendations under this 
head, Chapter III. 



118 EXPORT PACKING 

as well minimizing festooning nails or staples spaced 
about 6 inches apart. 

Strapping must be drawn tight by mechanical means 
in order to have the maximum of tension. 

Standard Specifications for Wire-bound Boxes 

Boxes must be well manufactured from lumber which 
is sound (free from decay and dote) and well seasoned. 
Lumber kiln dried at excessively high temperature or 
low humidities or below 6 per cent moisture, must be 
avoided. Material must be free from knot holes and 
from loose or rotten knots greater than 1 inch in diame- 
ter. No knots will be permitted which interfere with the 
proper nailing or stapling. 

Cleats. — Cleat material must be free from knots and 
cross grain. Cleats must not be less than three-fourths 
inch wide, seven-eighths inch thick. 

Wires.— Wires shall not be less than No. 14 gauge nor 
spaced more than 6 inches apart. 

Staples. — Staples shall be spaced not more than 2 
inches apart over each wire. Staples which are not 
driven into cleats must be clinched. 

Ends. — On boxes not to exceed 20 x 15 x 10 inches in- 
side measurement and carrying not to exceed 90 pounds 
the ends may be the same thickness as the sheet material, 
and should be nailed or stapled on the inside of the cleats. 
Nails and staples shall be spaced approximately 2 inches 
apart. On larger boxes of heavier weights the ends shall 
be nailed to battens or to solid ends set between the 
cleats. A seven-penny nail must be driven through cleat 
into each end of each batten. 

Number of Pieces. — Sides and tops shall be one-piece 
stock, and bottom one, or two-piece stock if made of 
rotary-cut lumber not less than one-fourth inch thick. If 
two-piece sides and tops and three-piece bottoms are 
used, material must be at least one thirty-second inch 
heavier than one-piece stock, or wires spaced not more 
than 5 inches apart. 



OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 119 

When resawed material is used in sides, tops, and 
bottoms it shall be one-sixteenth of an inch thicker than 
the rotary-cut lumber specified for one-piece stock.. 

Limitations. — There are limitations as to sizes, 
weights, and commodities that can be packed in wire- 
bound boxes. These limitations, however, can not be 
definitely fixed in any general specifications. 

Standard Specification of the War Department 
for Export Packing in Boxes 

Paper Lining. — Boxes shall be lined with waterproof 
case lining paper, over which shall be placed a lining of 
bogus or gray rag paper. 

(a) Specifications for Waterproof Case-Lining Paper. 
— The specifications for waterproof case-lining paper are 
as follows : This waterproof case-lining paper shall be 
made of two layers or sheets of 100 per cent sulphate 
kraft paper, each layer weighing 30 pounds to the ream 
of 480 sheets, basis 24 by 36 inches, cemented together 
with not more than 30 pounds average weight of asphal- 
tum to the ream. The basis of weight for the finished 
paper shall be 90 pounds to the ream of 480 sheets, basis 
24 by 36 inches, with an allowable variation of 5 per cent 
above or below on the above basis, such variation, if any, 
to apply either to the paper or the asphaltum. The paper 
must be thoroughly waterproof, so that a receptacle made 
of a single piece shall hold water for 24 hours without 
wetting through. The strength shall be not less than 60 
points on the Mullen tester. 

(b) Specifications for Bogus or Gray Bag Paper. — 
The specifications for the bogus or gray rag paper are as 
follows : This bogus or gray rag paper shall weigh 
90 pounds to the ream of 480 sheets, basis 24 by 36 inches, 
and the strength shall be not less than 15 points on the 
Mullen tester. 

(c) Method of Lining Box with Waterproof Case- 
Lining Paper.— Boxes shall be lined with waterproof 
case-lining paper, either with sheets cut to the size re- 



120 EXPORT PACKING 

quired or with made-up containers or case liners of the 
correct size. If sheets cut to size are used, boxes shall be 
lined as follows: The bottom, sides, and top of the box 
shall be lined with a sheet of width not less than the in- 
terior length of the box, plus not less than 6 inches for 
lapping 3 inches around corners at each end of box, and 
of length sufficient to cover the bottom, sides, and top of 
box, and lap at least 6 inches on the top. Each end of 
box shall be lined with a sheet of width not less than the 
interior width of the box, plus not less than 6 inches for 
lapping around the corners 3 inches on each side, and of 
length not less than the interior depth of the box plus 
not less than 12 inches for lapping 6 inches on the top 
and bottom of the box. Thus, a box of interior dimen- 
sions, length 36 inches, width 17% inches, depth 13 
inches, shall be lined as follows : Bottom, sides, and top 
with a sheet 42 by 67 inches, and each end with a sheet 
23% by 25 inches. 

(d) Method of Lining Box with Bogus or Gray Rag 
Paper. — The bogus or gray rag paper shall be so placed 
in the box that the waterproof paper lining is completely 
covered. 

Box Strapping. — Boxes shall be strapped with cold- 
rolled unannealed steel band treated to prevent rust. 

(a) Width and Gauge of Strapping. — The width and 
gauge of strapping to be used shall depend upon the 
gross weight of the box. On boxes up to 250 pounds gross 
weight the size of the strapping used shall be either % 
inch wide by 0.020 inch thick, or % inch wide by 0.015 
inch thick, ultimate tensile strength not less than 1,000 
pounds. On boxes over 250 pounds gross weight to and 
including 400 pounds gross weight, the size of strapping 
used shall be either % inch wide by 0.020 inch thick, or 
1 inch wide by 0.015 inch thick, ultimate tensile strength 
not less than 1,200 pounds. 

(b) Point of Application of Strapping. — All boxes 
shall be strapped on each end, strapping to be placed not 
less than 1 inch nor more than 3 inches from inside of 
ends of box. Boxes the length of which is greatly in 



OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 121 

excess of the width or depth shall have one or more addi- 
tional straps spaced equidistant between the end straps. 
When these are considered necessary they will be 
specified. 

(c) Stretching of Strapping. — Strapping must be 
applied with some kind of stretching tool before nailing, 
so that it will be tight between nails and will not bulge 
over corners. 

(d) Nailing of Strapping. — Strapping shall be nailed 
on as follows: Where it passes over the corners of the 
box it shall be secured by two four-penny cement-coated 
nails — one driven through the strap and through the top 
or bottom boards into the side boards, and one nail driven 
through the strap into the top or bottom boards. Between 
the corners of the box, strapping shall be secured with 
nails spaced approximately 2% inches apart, and at least 
one nail shall be driven through the strap into each sep- 
arate board of side, top and bottom. When the thickness 
of side, top and bottom is % inch, use %-inch flathead 
nails; when the thickness of side, top and bottom is % 
inch, use %-inch flathead nails. When strapping 1 inch 
wide is used, the nails shall be staggered. 

(e) Joints of Strapping. — Joints of strap shall lap 
at least 5 inches, and shall be so placed that the end of 
one overlapping piece shall be on the top of the box, 
approximately 2% inches from corner, and the end of the 
other overlapping piece on the side of the box approxi- 
mately 2y 2 inches from same corner. Each end of strap 
shall be secured by nail driven % inch from end. The 
correct method of applying strapping is shown on draw- 
ing 76-11-9, with latest revisions, furnished upon request. 

Style of Box. — Two styles of boxes shall be used : 

Style A. — Having two cleats on each end, these cleats 
being vertical — i. e., at right angles to grain of ends. 

Style B. — Having four cleats on each end. 

Style A shall be used when the weight of contents is 
100 pounds or less, or whenever the depth of the box is 
less than 12 inches. 

Style B shall be used when the weight of contents 



122 EXPORT PACKING 

exceeds 100 pounds and the depth of box is 12 inches 
or more. 

Surfacing. — It will be specified in each case whether 
box boards shall be SIS or S2S. 1 When SIS, the sur- 
faced side shall be outside. Surfacing shall be well done, 
and no injurious sharp splinters or rough spots shall 
appear on surfaced boards. 

Considerable economy will result from allowing 
%-inch material to be SIS, since two thicknesses can be 
cut from nominal lV^-inch lumber, while %-inch S2S 
sometimes requires 1-inch lumber for one thickness. 

Joining. — All joints between boards shall be tongued 
and grooved or Linderman jointed. When tongued and 
grooved, boards must be tight matched. When Linder- 
man jointed, the dovetail (or dovetails where double 
Linderman joint is used) shall be situated equidistant 
from opposite edges of the board. 

Cleats. — Boxes having sides, top, bottom, and ends of 
group 1 woods may have cleats of any of the species 
listed. Group 2 woods are recommended for cleats. 

Boxes having sides, top, bottom and ends of group 2 
woods shall have cleats of woods of same group. 

Cleats shall be 2 inches wide and of the same thickness 
as sides, tops and bottoms. 

Nailing. — A — Cleats to Ends. — Cleats shall be se- 
curely nailed to ends with nails sufficiently long to pass 
through both thicknesses of lumber and clinch. At least 
two nails shall connect each piece of end to each cleat. 
Nails shall be placed as near the ends of cleats as pos- 
sible, without splitting cleats. Intermediate nails shall 
be spaced approximately 2 inches along the length of the 
cleat. These nails shall be staggered. 

B — Sides, top and bottom to ends. — Nails used shall 
be standard cement-coated box nails. 

Proper size of nails depends on species and thickness 
of lumber holding points of nails after driving. 

The following schedule shall apply : 

1 S2S should be specified when contents are such as to be damaged by 
abrasion on rough boards. 



OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 



123 



Classification 

of 

woods 


Thickness of 

pieces holding 

points of 

nails after 

driving 


Penny- 
designation 
of nail 


Length of 
nails to be 

not less 
than — 


Average 
diameter of 
head to be 

not less 
than — • 


Group 1 

Group 2 

Group 2 


Inch 


d. 
8 
6 
6 


Inches 
We 

1 13 ^6 


Inch 

% 

M 



Nails may be as slender as can be driven without 
bending or breaking, but must conform to the above 
schedule as to length. The head of the nail must be 
heavy enough not to be readily broken. 

Spacing. — Nails connecting sides, top, and bottoms to 
ends shall be spaced as uniformly as possible. Spaces 
shall average not to exceed 2 inches. On edges where 
cleats are used approximately 50 per cent of the nails 
shall be driven into cleats. Top and bottom nails of sides 
shall be driven into cleats. Each piece of sides, top and 
bottom shall have not less than two nails at each end. 

C — Top and bottom to sides. — Sizes of nails shall be 
in accordance with above schedule. Nails shall be stand- 
ard cement coated box nails. 

Nails shall be spaced at approximately 6-inch centers. 

When box boards are Linderman jointed the require- 
ment for two nails in each end of each side, top, bottom, 
and end board shall not apply. 

Sealing. — When tops and bottoms are Linderman 
jointed they shall be considered as one piece and two seals 
only (one at each side) shall be used. 

Screws in seal holes shall be 1% inches by No. 8. 

Screws must not be driven by hammer. 

Size of Box. — The following diagram shows a list 
of the standard boxes of various sizes : 



124 



EXPORT PACKING 



DIMENSIONS, DISPLACEMENTS AND WEIGHTS OF STANDARD BOXES 











Dimensions of Box 








Approx- 




















Displace- 


imate 




















ment of 


weight 


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Interior 








Exterior 




box 


of box 




















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1 


21.5 


8 


8 


24.5 


9.5 


9.5 


24 


9.25 


9.25 


2,211 


2,054 


14 


15 


2 


21 


9 


10 


24 


10.5 


11.5 


23.5 


10.25 


11.25 


2,898 


2,710 


16 


18 


3 


17 


11.5 


10 


20 


13 


11.5 


19.5 


12.75 


11.25 


2,990 


2,797 


16 


18 


4 


41.5 


14.5 


5 


44.5 


16 


6.5 


44 


15.75 


6.25 


4,628 


4,331 


26 


30 


5 


26 


15 


9 


29 


16.5 


10.5 


28.5 


16.25 


10.25 


5,024 


4,747 


23 


26 


6 


22 


18 


12 


25 


19.5 


13.5 


24.5 


19.25 


13.25 


6,581 


6,249 


29 


33 


7 


37.5 


14 


10 


40.5 


15.5 


11.5 


40 


15.25 


11.25 


7,219 


6,863 


31 


35 


8 


26 


19 


12 


29 


20.5 


13.5 


28.5 


20.25 


13.25 


8,026 


7,647 


31 


35 


9 


37.5 


14 


12 


40.5 


15.5 


13.5 


40 


15.25 


13.25 


8,475 


8,082 


35 


40 


10 


22.625 


22.5 


14.25 


25.625 


24 


15.75 


25.125 


23.75 


15.5 


9,686 


9,249 


34 


38 


11 


36 


17.5 


13 


39 


19 


14.5 


38.5 


18.75 


14.25 


10,745 


10,287 


39 


44 


12 


49 


16 


9 


52 


17.5 


10.5 


51.5 


17.25 


10.25 


9,555 


9,106 


40 


45 


13 


44 


15 


15 


47 


16.5 


16.5 


46.5 


16.25 


16.25 


12,796 


12,279 


45 


51 


14 


46 


26 


9 


49 


27.5 


10.5 


48.5 


27.25 


10.25 


14,149 


13,547 


52 


58 


15 


41 


21.5 


15 


44 


23 


16.5 


43.5 


22.75 


16.25 


16,698 


16,081 


55 


62 


16 


47 


20.5 


14.5 


50 


22 


16 


49.5 


21.75 


15.75 


17,600 


16,957 


58 


65 


17 


37 


26 


15 


49 


27.5 


16.5 


39.5 


27.25 


16.25 


18,150 


17,491 


57 


65 


18 


48 


21.5 


15 


51 


23 


16.5 


50.5 


22.75 


16.25 


19,355 


18,669 


59 


66 


19 


40.5 


25 


16 


43.5 


26.5 


17.5 


43 


26.25 


17.25 


20,173 


19,471 


58 


66 


20 


37 


22.5 


20 


40 


24 


21.5 


39.5 


23.75 


21.25 


20,640 


19,935 


61 


68 


21 


34 


29 


25 


37 


30.5 


26.5 


36.5 


30.25 


26.25 


29,905 


28,983 


76 


86 


22 


36 


17.5 


7.25 


39 


19 


8.75 


38.5 


18.75 


8.5 


6,484 


6,136 


30 


34 


24 


16.5 


17 


9.5 


19.5 


18.5 


11 


19 


18.25 


10.75 


3,968 


3,728 


19 


21 


25 


24.5 


14 


8 


27.5 


15.5 


9.5 


27 


15.25 


9.25 


4,049 


3,809 


20 


23 


26 


21 


16.5 


12 


24 


18 


13.5 


23.5 


17.75 


13.25 


5,832 


5,527 


25 


28 


27 


50 


14 


15 


53 


15.5 


16.5 


52.5 


15.25 


16.25 


13,555 


13,010 


48 


54 


28 


44 


21.5 


11.5 


47 


23 


13 


46.5 


22.75 


12.75 


14,053 


13,488 


48 


55 


29 


26 


22 


11.5 


29 


23.5 


13 


28.5 


23.25 


12.75 


8,860 


8,448 


33 


37 


30 


31.5 


20 


10 


34.5 


21.5 


11.5 


34 


21.25 


11.25 


8,530 


8,128 


33 


39 


31 


28 


8 


8 


31 


9.5 


9.5 


30.5 


9.25 


9.25 


2,798 


2,610 


17 


19 


33 


28 


9 


8 


31 


10.5 


9.5 


30.5 


10.25 


9.25 


3,092 


2,892 


17 


20 


34 


24 


26 


12 


27 


27.5 


13.5 


26.5 


27.25 


13.25 


10,024 


9,568 


36 


40 


35 


27 


7.5 


7 


30 


9 


8.5 


29.5 


8.75 


8.25 


2,295 


2,150 


15 


16 


36 


34 


11.5 


10.5 


37 


13 


12 


36.5 


12.75 


11.75 


5,772 


5,468 


26 


30 


39 


36.5 


26.5 


6 


39.5 


28 


7.5 


39 


27.75 


7.25 


8,295 


7,846 


38 


43 


40 


41 


20 


10 


44 


21.5 


11.5 


43.5 


21.25 


11.25 


10,879 


10,399 


41 


46 


41 


39 


27 


10 


42 


28.5 


11.5 


41.5 


28.25 


11.25 


13,766 


13,189 


48 


55 


42 


29 


20 


10 


32 


21.5 


11.5 


31.5 


21.25 


11.25 


7,912 


7,530 


32 


36 


43 


44 


16.5 


12.5 


47 


18 


14 


46.5 


17.75 


13.75 


11,844 


11,349 


43 


48 


44 


33 


16.5 


11.5 


36 


18 


13 


35.5 


17.75 


12.75 


8,424 


8,034 


34 


38 


45 


33 


13.5 


9 


36 


15 


10.5 


35.5 


14.75 


10.25 


5,670 


5,367 


26 


29 


46 


35 


11.5 


11.5 


38 


13 


13 


37.5 


12.75 


12.75 


6,422 


6,096 


28 


32 


47 


26 


18 


12 


29 


19.5 


13.5 


28.5 


19.25 


13.25 


7,634 


7,269 


30 


34 


48 


19.5 


18.125 


16.5 


22.5 


19.625 


18 


22 


19.375 


17.75 


7,948 


7,566 


32 


36 


49 


41 


12.75 


12.25 


44 


14.25 


13.75 


43.5 


14 


13.5 


8,621 


8,222 


35 


39 



OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 125 



How to Build a Box 

Issued by the Safepaclc Mills 

There are eight types of wooden boxes now in general 
use for shipping goods. Technically, a wooden box is 
any closed, rectangular wooden container with or without 
cleats, and it may be called either a "box" or a "case." 
They are the same. A crate, of course, may also be en- 
tirely closed or sheathed over, but it differs from a box 
in that it has an inside reenforcement of framework or 
bracing. There are also special types of veneer-panel, 
collapsible, and wire-bound boxes. The larger use, how- 
ever, is for the eight types of standard nailed and lock- 
cornered boxes shown on Diagram I. Which of these 
types of box should be used for any commodity depends, 
of course, on the commodity itself, its character, weight 
and bulk and the destination of the shipment. But the 
rules which follow are an easy guide to selection. 



Styles of Boxes 

Style 1 is uncleated and is used mostly for small boxes 
with light contents*- 

Style 2 has double-cleated ends and is particularly 
adapted for large boxes with heavy contents, because of 
its strength due to cleats and to double nailing of sides, 
tops and bottoms to both cleats and ends. 

Style 3 is a similar box with mitered cleats and heavier 
nailing, also adapted for large boxes with heavy contents. 

Style 4 has single-cleated ends and is suitable for 
boxes of medium size and medium weight of contents. 
The sides have double nailing into both cleats and ends, 
but the top and bottom have only single nailing into ends. 

Style 5 has internal cleats and is a good type of con- 
struction for boxes of medium size and weight of con- 
tents.. Sometimes the width of the cleat is nailed to the 
end instead of to the side. Sometimes triangular internal 



126 



EXPORT PACKING 






^ g "^ ^^^ x^^ 


■. 




• 


\2 




STYLE; 2 


.... 


s 





^r^^. 



STYLE S 








•" ^ 






<TJ 






3 




j ^^ * 


3 




y^ ( 


3 


, c 




3 




5 y / ^ i 


J ~ 




3 






3 






3 


STYLE 6 £ 




T 









Courtesy of Safepack Mills. 



Diagram 1 



OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 127 

cleats are used in place of rectangular cleats. For articles 
such as round cans and odd-shaped articles which do not 
touch the corners of the box, considerable displacement in 
the container can be saved by the use of this style, be- 
cause the cleats are inside and take up space otherwise 
unoccupied. 

Style 6 is a plain lock-cornered box and is adapted 
for boxes of medium size and medium weight of contents. 

Style 7 is a similar lock-cornered box fitted with a 
sliding cover. 

Style 8 is a similar lock-cornered box equipped with 
a hinge cover. 

Styles 1 to 6 are mostly used, styles 7 and 8 being 
used as a rule for more or less special products. 

Lumber 

Both tests and actual use have thoroughly demon- 
strated that satisfactory boxes can be made of prac- 
tically any of the commercially important woods. 

Knots, Knot Holes, Decay, Worm Holes and Checks.— 
The lumber used in the box should also be sound — free 
from decay, dote and injurious insect or worm hole — and 
should contain no knots or knot holes large enough to 
seriously affect the strength of the box. 

It is difficult to set an arbitrary maximum for size of 
knots or knot holes which will be satisfactory in all in- 
stances. The degree to which a knot weakens a board 
depends not only upon the size of the knot, but also upon 
its position in the board and upon whether it is a loose, 
decayed or sound knot. Knots or knot holes in the center 
of a box board are generally more weakening than knots 
or knot holes near the ends, and a loose or rotten knot is 
generally more v^eakening than a sound knot. 

The War Department specifications for export boxes 
permitted no knots larger than one-third the width of 
the board, measured as in Diagram 2, and permitted no 
knot holes or loose or rotten knots greater than one inch 
in diameter, measured as in Diagram 2. These speci- 



128 



EXPORT PACKING 



fications worked out very satisfactorily and did much 
toward improving the quality of army boxes. It has 
been said by some that this is too stringent a specifica- 
tion for commercial export or domestic boxes, because it 
requires too expensive construction. Possibly this is 
true, but it should be borne in mind that in many cases 
better commercial export and domestic boxes are badly 
needed, and better box lumber will assist greatly in im- 
proving them. 




Courtesy of Safepaek Mills. 
Diagram 2. Method of measuring knot. 



Boxes which must be tight because of the nature of 
their contents should be made of lumber free from knot 
holes and loose or rotten knots. No knots should be per- 
mitted in any box which interfere with proper nailing. 
Large checks or splits are objectionable, because they 
weaken the board and should generally not be admitted 
unless reenf orced with corrugated fasteners driven across 
the opening. 

Thickness and Width. — Probably no other factor is of 
as much interest to the box industry as the thicknesses 
and the widths of lumber which are specified. Because 
of the high cost of the upper lumber grades, the box in- 
dustry is compelled to use the lower grades which con- 
tain knots and other defects. These defects are cut out 
in resawing the boards, the amount of cutting necessary 
and the waste resulting depending upon the grade of 
lumber used and the grade of box desired. Under ordi- 
nary conditions the waste in cutting out defects runs 
from 15 to 20 per cent. 



OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 129 

The rough thicknesses available are generally 1", 1%", 
iy 2 " and occasionally 2", and the available widths range 
from 3" and 4" up to 12". It should be borne in mind, 
however, that although the available widths run up to 
12" or sometimes higher, by far the larger per cent of 
material available runs from 4" to 6" or 8". 

The specifying for boxes of thicknesses and widths 
which cannot be produced by the box maker without a 
large amount of waste decreases the production of the 
box factory, increases the cost of the box and in most in- 
stances accomplishes no particular purpose. For the 
sake of economy, therefore, the standard and more com- 
mon thicknesses and widths should be adhered to. 

Rule for Thickness. — The particular thickness of lum- 
ber required for a box depends upon whether the box is 
for domestic or export shipment, and also upon the char- 
acter, size and weight of the contents. It is, therefore, 
impossible to lay down a general rule regarding thickness 
which will apply in all cases. 

Boxes of a gross weight of less than 100 lbs.,, such as 
boxes for canned goods and boxes for shoes and soap, are 
often made of lumber of less than commercial 1" thick- 
ness, using %", y 2 " or %" thickness, according to the 
standard practice. These thicknesses are resawed from 
1", 1%" and 2" thicknesses. 

Boxes of a gross weight of from 250 to 500 lbs., either 
for domestic or for export shipment, especially those of 
large size, should generally be made of heavier lumber 
than 1" thickness, using commercial l 1 /^', 1%" and 2" 
thickness, according to conditions. 

Boxes for export, in most cases, should be made of 
thicker material than boxes for domestic shipment owing 
to the increased hazards of transportation to which they 
are liable to be subjected. The thickness required for 
export boxes may exceed the proper thickness for domes- 
tic shipment by from 10 to 50 per cent, or even more, 
according to conditions. During the war the U. S. Army 
found that for hardware, textile materials, leather goods, 
mess equipment and similar material, where the gross 



130 • EXPORT PACKING 

weight of the box and contents did not exceed 250 lbs. 
and the cubic displacement 17 cubic feet, boxes made of 
standard commercial 1-inch lumber with cleated ends, 
constructed and strapped according to the specifications 
which follow, were of sufficient strength for both domestic 
and overseas shipment. 

It is possible to construct a box for almost any size 
and weight of contents, but in general, boxes for articles 
of very large size and weight are not economical, because 
they must be made of lumber of excessive thickness in 
order to have the required strength. Crating of large 
heavy articles is much more economical than boxing, as 
considerably less lumber can be used by making a heavy 
crate framework of sufficient strength to carry the article, 
anchoring the article to it, and if necessary, covering the 
framework with thin 1" sheathing. 

It has been conclusively proven that boxes which are 
well strapped with steel strapping require thinner lum- 
ber than boxes which are unstrapped. The great value 
of strapping has not been fully realized, and its use is 
worthy of very careful study, both from the standpoint 
of economy in packing, enabling the use of thinner lumber 
and also from the standpoint of increased strength of 
container. 

Rules for Width. — Boxes with one-piece sides, tops, 
bottoms and ends are generally stronger and more de- 
sirable than boxes where sides, tops, bottoms and ends 
are composed of more than one piece. Except in the case 
of small boxes, it is generally not practical to use one- 
piece stock entirely, because of the difficulty of securing 
wide boards and because of their cost. It is advisable, 
however, to use as wide boards as possible, because of the 
difficulty of properly nailing boards of less than 2%" face 
width. Also large boxes made of a number of narrow 
boards are very apt to shear along the joints between 
the boards when dropped on a corner of the end, causing 
the ends to get out of plumb, greatly weakening the box. 

.Bearing in mind the available widths of lumber and 
also the relation of widths of different size to the strength 



OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 



131 



of the box, the rules for width were worked out by the 
War Department. 

The box maker is always anxious to use up his narrow 
stock so as to reduce his waste, and boxes are often made 
which contain boards l 1 /^" or even 1" wide. However, 
the minimum face width of boards should never be less 
than 2 1 /2", as it is necessary in properly nailing a box 
that each separate piece of sides, top and bottom have not 



BUTT 



H 



SHIPLAP 



TON&UE + GROOVE 



1 



Diagram 3. 



LINDERMAN 

Courtesy of Safepack Mills. 
Four usual methods of joining boards in box making. 



less than two nails at each nailing end, and it is impos- 
sible to successfully drive two nails into the end of a 
board less than 2%" in width. 

Surfacing. — In general, boxes, especially small ones, 
should be surfaced on the outside, because rough boxes 
are very difficult to handle without getting splinters in 
the hands, and they are difficult to stencil or mark prop- 
erly. Whether or not the box should be surfaced on the 
inside depends upon the liability of the contents to injury 
by abrasion on rough boards. 



132 



EXPORT PACKING 



It is often more economical to make a box of boards 
which are surfaced only on one side, as they can some- 
times be resawed from thicker boards with less waste 
than boards which are surfaced on two sides. For in- 
stance, in the case of %" lumber, two %" thicknesses can 
generally be resawed from commercial 1%" lumber when 
the boards are surfaced on one side, while it may require 
full 1" lumber for one %" thickness when the boards are 
surfaced on two sides. In some instances, there is also 
the question of slightly increased thickness and the re- 
sulting greater strength of boxes made of lumber sur- 
faced only on one side. 




Courtesy of Safepack Mills. 
Diagram 4. Proper method of nailing an uncleated box. 



Joining. — The more common methods of joining box 
boards are shown in Diagram 3. Where the nature of 
the contents demands a tight box for protection against 
moisture and dust it is advisable to use either a tongued 
and grooved or a Linderman joint. The use of these 
joints also increases the strength of the box, as the in- 
dividual boards assist each other in resisting the impact 
of blows which tend to puncture the box. When the 
Linderman joint is used, the dovetail tongue — or tongues 



OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 



133 



where the double Linderman joint is used — should be 
situated equidistant from the opposite edges of the board. 
Where butt joints are used in box ends 1" or less in 
thickness, it is advisable to fasten each joint with not less 
than three corrugated fasteners, two driven from one 
side near the ends and the other driven from the opposite 
side, midway between the other two. The use of corru- 
gated fasteners in butt joints in sides, tops and bottoms 
will also greatly increase their strength. It is also ad- 
visable to break joints between boards in sides and ends 
of box to eliminate the weakening effect of a continuous 
joint clear around the box. 




Courtesy of Safepack Mills. 
Diagram 5. Proper method of nailing a single-cleated box. 

Cleats. — Ends one inch or less in thickness composed 
of more than one piece and not reenforced in the joints 
with corrugated fasteners as specified above, should be 
cleated. The cleats on export boxes should, as a rule, 
not be less than 2" wide and should not be less than %" 
thick. In general, cleats and ends are of same thickness. 

Boxes whose sides, top, bottom and ends are made of 
woods listed in Groups 1 and 2 may have cleats made of 
any of the woods listed in the four groups. Boxes whose 
sides, top, bottom and ends are made of woods listed in 
Groups 3 and 4 should have cleats of woods from Groups 
3 and 4 woods. 



134 



EXPORT PACKING 



In making Style 4 boxes, care should be taken that the 
cleats be cut a little shorter than the over-all height of 
the box, so that the ends reach slightly below the top and 
bottom surfaces of the box. If the cleats project even 
slightly above the top and bottom surface, they are very 
liable to be loosened or torn off in handling the box. 

The value of cleats lies in the reenf orcing which they 
give the end of a box by tying it together and reducing to 
a minimum the dangerous effects of splitting the box end. 
There is great advantage also in the increased nailing 
surface which they afford for nailing sides, tops and bot- 
toms, with consequent added strength to the box. Boxes 




Courtesy of Safepack Mills. 
Diagram 6. Proper method of nailing a double-cleated box. 

with heavy contents and boxes of great depth should, as 
a rule, have cleated ends, because of the great added 
strength afforded by the cleats. 

Nails and Nailing 



The manner in which a box or case is nailed is of ex- 
treme importance. The size and quality of wood may be 
just right, but the strength of the box and the safety of 
its contents will depend largely on the nailing. A box 



OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 135 

is only as strong as its nail-holding power. Tests have 
shown that a few correctly placed nails will sometimes 
increase the strength of a box 100 per cent. 

All nails with the possible exception of nails driven 
through cleats and clinched should be standard cement- 
coated box nails, for cement-coated nails have from 10 to 
30 per cent, more holding power than plain hails and 
greatly increase the strength of the box. They are also 
of lighter -gauge than plain nails and cause less splitting 
in driving, and being lighter in gauge they are cheaper, 
for there are more of them to the pound. 

Nailing Outside Cleats to Ends. — Cleats should be se- 
curely nailed to ends with nails sufficiently long to pass 
through both thicknesses of lumber and clinch at least % 




Courtesy of SafepacTc Mills. 

Diagram 7. Bad effect of overdriving a nail. 

of an inch. At least two nails should connect each sep- 
arate piece of end to each cleat, and nails at top and bot- 
tom of cleats should be placed as near the ends as pos- 
sible without splitting the cleats. Approximately the 
same number of nails should be used in nailing cleats to 
ends of box as are used in nailing the adjacent side, top 
or bottom to the end. Nails should be spaced evenly 
along the cleat and should be staggered, care being taken 
to place the nails as close to the edge of the cleat as pos- 
sible without splitting it.- Diagrams 5 and 6 show the 
correct way to nail cleats to the ends of a box. 



136 



EXPORT PACKING 



Nailing Sides, Top and Bottom to Ends. — The gauge 
or size of nails to be used here is determined by the thick- 
ness and by the species of the ends or cleats in which 
the points of the nails are held after driving. A general 
rule worked out by the Forest Products Laboratory is as 
follows : 

When the box end or cleat is of woods listed in Groups 
3 and 4 the penny of the nails should be the thickness of 
the end or cleat expressed in eighths of an inch. Ends or 




z't* s' 



Courtesy of Safepack Mills. 
Diagram 8. Steel strap located in from ends of box. 



cleats of woods in Groups 1 and 2 should take the next 
penny larger. 

This is a good general rule, but the Forest Products 
Laboratory has recently worked up a nailing schedule for 
boxes up to %" in thickness which gives better nailing 
in individual cases. (See Capt. Knowlton's chapter on 
this subject.) 

For export boxes the spacing of the nails should be as 
follows : Six-penny nails and nails smaller than 6-penny 
should be spaced not more than IV2" apart when driven 
in the side grain of the end (see nails marked "X" in 
Diagrams 4, 5 and 6) and not more than 1%" apart when 



OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 



137 



driven in the end grain of the end (see nails marked " Y" 
in Diagrams 4, 5 and 6). In the case of nails larger than 
six-penny, the spacing in end construction should be in- 
creased over these sizes one-fourth of an inch for each 
penny over six. 

Nailing Top and Bottom to Sides. — The spacing of the 
nails should be six inches or more apart when nails are 
six-penny or smaller (see nails marked "Z" in Diagrams 
4, 5 and 6). For nails larger than six-penny increase the 
spacing one inch for each penny over six. 




Courtesy of Safepack Mills. 
Diagram 9. Steel strap applied at ends of box, directly over nailing. 



Driving of Nails. — The heads of the nails should be 
heavy enough not to be broken in driving, and nails with 
large heads are preferable to nails with small heads, as 
they are less liable to pull through the boards. 

In all cases care should be taken not to overdrive nails. 
Nails should be driven so that heads are just flush with 
the surface of the boards, because when the heads of 
nails are driven below the surface of the boards the wood 
structure is broken down, and the holding power of the 
nail is greatly decreased, as Diagram 7 shows. No nails 
should be driven into joints. 



138 



EXPORT PACKING 



The Lock-Cornered Box 

A large part of the efficiency of the lock-cornered type 
of box depends upon the strength of the lock-cornered 
joint, and, therefore, care should be taken to make the 
joint properly. Locks at corners should fit tightly, and 
great care should be taken to thoroughly glue the locks 
with a good grade of glue. The strength of the lock- 
cornered joints can be greatly increased by driving a 
long thin finishing nail down through two or three of the 
locks at each of the eight corners. 



/W 



Yi 



Yl 



y /STEEL STRAPPING x 

S 111* X —I 




i, 



jl 



^m 



TZl 



|Y 

|Y 



M/ 



x 

Courtesy of SafepacJc Mills. 
Diagram 10. Section of strap-bound box shown in Diagram 8. 



Wherever possible sides and ends should be of one 
piece. When sides and ends are made of more than one 
piece, great care should be taken to break the joints be- 
tween boards in the sides and ends at least 1", and prefer- 
ably 1%"> if possible. If this is not done the box is liable 
to split in two at the joints between the boards. 

For nailing the top and bottom of lock-cornered boxes 



OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 139 

to the sides, the same rule applies as in the case of nailed 
boxes. 

Metal Stkapping of Boxes 

There is no other means which will strengthen a box 
so greatly as reenforcing it with steel strapping. Tests 
show that it is possible to increase the strength of a box 
100 per cent or even more by the proper application of 
steel strapping. Also thinner lumber can be used and the 
cost of the box reduced, and in addition strapping is of 
great assistance in preventing the pilfering of boxes. 

It is good export practice to strap all boxes for over- 
seas shipment, no matter what their size, weight or des- 
tination. If strapping were also used to a much greater 
extent on domestic shipments, it would go a long way 
toward reducing the damage claims paid by the carriers 
for broken and pilfered boxes. Also the required strength 
of a container can be secured much more cheaply by the 
proper use of steel strapping than by lumber of excessive 
thickness. 

Types of Strapping. — The two most common types of 
strapping are flat steel band strapping and single or 
twisted wire strapping. There are also efficient special 
patented types of nailless strap and wire. For all-around 
use, however, there is no better strap than flat band, cold 
rolled, unannealed steel strap, coated to prevent rust, if 
it is properly stretched, properly located on the box and 
properly nailed. 

Unannealed flat band strapping makes a stronger 
binding than annealed, for the unannealed strap pos- 
sesses by actual test over 30 per cent more tensile 
strength than the annealed. Also it usually does not cost 
any more. The tensile strength of a strap is its most im- 
portant quality, as most strap fails by a direct tensile 
strain or by a tear. When a box dries out it shrinks and 
the strap loosens between nails, causing it to bulge away 
from the box. Then, when the box is handled in freight 
cars, on the docks, in the hold of a ship or in the ware- 



140 EXPORT PACKING 

house the strap often catches on nails or other projections 
and tears or breaks. 

Annealed strap because of its low tensile strength is 
consequently much more liable to tear or break than 
unannealed strap. Also the annealed strap possesses con- 
siderable ability to stretch, which is another undesirable 
quality. The annealed strap nails somewhat easier than 
the unannealed, but in the gauges used for ordinary boxes 
there is no difficulty in nailing the unannealed strap. 

Location of Straps. — Boxes are strapped in two dif- 
ferent ways : with the strap directly over the ends of the 
box, as shown in Diagram 9, and with the strap a slight 
distance in from the ends, as shown in Diagram 8. 

The location of the strap slightly in from the ends 
of the box as shown in Diagram 8 gives a tighter binding, 
especially on boxes which are long, than strap applied 
directly over the ends, because in this position it better 
prevents the bulging of the side, top and bottom boards, 
which causes the nails in the end to start. However, on 
boxes whose sides, top and bottom are less than %" in 
thickness it is somewhat difficult to nail the strap when 
applied in from the ends, because of the thinness of the 
boards. The distance which the strap should be in from 
the ends will vary with the size of the box and the weight 
of the contents, but will generally be somewhere between 
2" and 5". Nailless strap and wire are always applied 
in from the ends of the box, being drawn tight by a 
stretching tool and the ends either sealed with a seal for 
flat band strap or twisted if wire strap is used. 

Strap applied directly over the ends of the box is 
generally easier to apply than strap applied in from the 
ends, because the ends of the box afford a firmer nailing 
surface and not so much care has to be exercised in 
nailing. Strap located on the end of the box not only 
assists in binding the sides, top and bottom boards to the 
ends, but also serves to prevent the nails in the side, top 
and bottom boards from working out. 

Stretching and Nailing. — The stretching of the strap 
is of the utmost importance, for a loose strap loses most 



OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 141 

of its efficiency as a binding, and the tighter the strap the 
less it will bulge when the box shrinks. There are a num- 
ber of tools on the market which stretch the strap well 
and are simple to use. 2 

Diagrams 8 and 10 show the correct way to nail strap- 
ping when located in from the ends of the box with double 
corner nails "x" and small flatheaded nails "y M holding 
the strap to the side, top and bottom of the box, spaced 
about 6" apart. With %" strap it would probably be 
difficult to place two nails at the corners as shown at "x," 
in which case one nail should be used driven through the 
strap and through the top or bottom board into the side 
board. The lap of the strap should be at the corner, as 
shown, a nail being driven close to the end of the strap so 
as to hold the end down firmly. 

The double corner nails "x" hold the strap securely 
against a pull in either direction, and the intermediate 
nails u y" keep the strap snug against the box and pre- 
vent it from bulging. Four-penny cement-coated nails 
are generally large enough for the corner nails "x," and 
the intermediate nails "y" should be short, flatheaded 
nails of length slightly less than the thickness of the 
sides, top and bottom. All nails should be cement coated. 

Strapping located directly over the ends is nailed 
with double corner nails a x" (see Diagram 9). The 
intermediate nails "y," however, are the same size and 
length as the nails (< x" and are generally spaced about 
3 or 4 inches apart. 

Pilfering 

Many million dollars worth of goods are lost each 
year by pilfering, both in domestic and export shipment. 

2 Instructions issued by the General Engineer Depot of the Army 
read: "Each case will be firmly bound with unannealed cold rolled strip 
steel. Ends should lap at least four inches. Bands shall be drawn tight 
by mechanical means; the use of a hammer claw and driving a nail on 
a slant and then straightening it up are not satisfactory; the joint shall 
be on the side of the box or crate. Bands shall preferably be put on as 
late as may be before shipment, to minimize the effect of shrinkage." 



142 



EXPORT PACKING 



Of course, no wooden box can be made so strong that it 
cannot be broken open. A box can be so sealed, however, 
that it is difficult for a thief to get into it without a good 
deal of trouble and without it showing the effects of tam- 
pering. Well applied strapping assists greatly in pre- 
venting pilfering, although an experienced thief can often 
get into a strapped box and seal it up again so that it is 
difficult to see that it has been tampered with. 

There are a number of patented safety clips on the 
market which are very efficient in preventing pilfering. 




Courtesy of Safepaclc Mills. 
Diagram 11. Method of sealing ]yx$ to prevent pilfering. 

One of the most efficient methods, however, is to use a 
tongued and grooved box and to seal the top, bottom and 
side boards of the box to the sides and ends by means of 
countersunk screws and sealing wax. .Each separate 
board of the top and bottom and center boards of the 
sides should be sealed, with seals located as shown in 
Diagram 11. The seal on the outside top or bottom 
boards ' * x ' ' should be on alternate ends about 8" from the 
end of the board. The center boards "y" should each 
have one seal at the end. 

The seal is made as shown on Diagram 12. A hole 
"H" is bored %" wide by 3/16" deep, care being taken 



OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 



143 



that the hole does not break the edge of the board. A 
screw "S" of length equal to twice the thickness of the 
top, bottom or side boards of the box is then driven 
through the top, bottom or side boards down into the side 
or end of the box. After the screw has been tightly 
driven, hot sealing wax U W" is poured into the hole 
"H" so that it is about two-thirds full. While the wax 
is still hot it is stamped with the manufacturer's initials 
"I," the trademark or other distinctive mark. Care 
should be taken not to pour the hole clear full of wax, as 
the wax is then liable to be broken by other boxes sliding 
over it. 




Courtesy of Safepack Mills. 
Diagram 12. Cross section showing method of preventing pilfering. 

With a box sealed in this manner the top and bottom 
boards cannot be removed without breaking the wax seal 
to remove the screws, after which the box would show 
the effects of tampering. .This is the standard method 
of sealing used by the War Department. 

Standard Crating Specifications of the War 
Department 



A crate consists of a frame with or without bracing. 
It may be of open construction or completely closed with 
sheathing. The lumber must be sound (free from decay 
and dote), well manufactured and well seasoned. Frame 
and bracing must be free from knots greater than one- 
fourth the width of the face, and sheathing material must 



144 



EXPORT PACKING 



be free from knots greater than one-third the width of 
the boards. No knot shall be permitted that interferes 
with the nailing. 

For these specifications well-seasoned lumber has an 
average moisture content of 12 to 18 per cent., based on 
the weight of the wood after oven drying. 

The principal woods used for framing and for frame 
bracing and sheathing are grouped as follows: 

FRAMES AND FRAME BRACES 



Group 1 

White pine. 

Norway pine. 

Aspen. 

Spruce. 

Western yellow pine. 

Cottonwood. 

Yellow poplar. 

Balsam fir. 

Chestnut. 

Butternut. 

Bedwood. 

Cucumber. 



Sugar pine. 

Cypress. 

Basswood. 

Willow. 

Noble fir. 

Magnolia. 

Buckeye. 

White fir. 

Cedar. 

Alpine fir. 

Lodgepole pine. 



Group 2 

Southern yellow pine. Virginia and North Carolina pine. 

Hemlock. Oak. 

Elm. Hackberry. 

Bed gum. Douglas fir. 

Sycamore. Larch. 

Ash. Black gum. 

Maple. Tupelo. 

Beech. Birch. 

Sheathing. — Any species of wood may be used for 
sheathing. 



OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 



145 



Thickness of Material. — When woods used for frames 
and braces in Group 1 are 1 to 2 inches thick, woods in 
Group 2 may be one-fourth inch less in thickness ; when 
woods in Group 1 are more than 2 inches thick, woods in 
Group 2 may be one-half inch less in thickness. 

Sheathing material of wood shall be approximately 
thirteen-sixteenths inch thick. 




m 




m 


o O 


o 




o 


o 




o 


o o 


iM 










Figure 1 



Widths of Lumber. — Pieces less than 3 inches wide 
shall not be used in frames or frame braces. Pieces less 
than 2% inches wide shall not be used in sheathing. 

Nails. — All nails 20-penny or less shall be standard 
cement-coated box nails. 

In frames, frame braces and sheathing the thickness 
of the member to be nailed on determines the penny of 
the nails used. In frame and frame braces the length of 
the nail should not be less than twice the thickness of the 
member nailed on. In sheathing the nails should be two- 



146 



EXPORT PACKING 



penny larger than the thickness of the member expressed 
in eighths of an inch. 

Spacing Nails. — Frames and braces shall not have less 
than two nails in each nailing edge. Nails in bracing and 
sheathing are to be staggered, approximately 2% inches 
apart. Cross braces must have not less than two nails 
driven through the two pieces, and these must be clinched 
where possible. Bracing should have as many nails as 
can be driven without splitting either member. 



NA &**c£Z£ 




f / \ ^t^S^^Sk 




a^s^l 




J* ^1 ^Y^ 




rj&K^NJjl 





|gK^w|g 







e 










Figure 2 



Bolts. — Bolts shall be used on heavy frame pieces, not 
less than two bolts to each framing edge (see Fig. 1). 
Standard cut washers shall be used under boltheads and 
nuts, except under heads of carriage bolts. Holes for 
bolts shall be the same diameter as the bolts. Carriage 
bolts shall be used in preference to machine bolts. Not 
less than %-inch bolts shall be used for frames 1 to l 1 /^ 
inches thick; %-i.nch bolts in frames up to 3 inches thick; 
%-inch bolts in frames over 3 inches thick. 



OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 



147 



Contents shall be bolted to skids with not less than 
four bolts where feasible, the size of the bolts to be 
determined by the holes in the machine base. When 
machine bolts are used, heads shall be counterbored flush 
with skids, and each bolt shall have a single-cut washer 
of standard size. The thread of bolts shall be upset close 
to the nut, so that the nuts will not work loose in trans- 
portation. To remove the nuts split them if necessary. 

Designs of Crates and Ceate Bracing 



The preferred design of crate construction is the 
three-way corner construction end, in which are placed 





Figure 3 



Figure 4 



on the inside of the longitudinal members either the ver- 
tical or horizontal end members, whichever conserves the 
greater space. (See Figures 1 and 2.) 

On heavy articles skids should be at least 50 per cent 
thicker than the other members of the frame, the addi- 
tional thickness to be in a separate piece bolted to the 
skids and extended to meet the vertical members. (See 
Fig. 3.) 

Combined thickness of the cross braces shall equal 
the thickness of the frame members. (See Fig. 4.) 

In angular crate bracing a cross member shall be 
placed so as to bring the angular brace as near 45° as 
possible. (See Fig. 5.) 

On all heavy material each side of crate shall be 
marked so as to show the center of gravity, and the skids 



148 



EXPORT PACKING 



shall be slotted on each side far enough apart to admit 
of proper -handling. Slots shall be at least 2 inches deep 
by 8 inches long, so that when the crate is being slung 
the hook on the hoisting point will span equally the center 
of gravity. (See Fig. 6.) 

Inteenal Beacing 

Cleats of suitable length and thickness shall be used 
and shall be nailed or bolted to the skids at the base of 
contents so as to prevent longitudinal movements. All 
internal cleats and bracing, so far as possible, shall be 





Figure 5 



Figure 6 



so placed that the compression stress is against the end 
grain of the wood. (See Fig. 7.) When contents have 
no base holes for bolting to skids, clamps must be placed 
at each end or side, fitted snugly to the load, and held in 
place by one bolt at each end. The clamps shall be full 
width of crate and of such square dimensions as will 
admit of no springing when bolts are drawn home. Such 
contents shall also have side cleats to prevent lateral 
movement. 

Space for Marking. — Some members of the crate shall 
be surfaced to permit adequate space for markings. 

Exceptions to Geneeal Specifications 

In the designing of crates for the protection of con- 
tents the information given, with the explanatory draw- 
ings, is of a general character and covers in a general 



OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 



149 



way all the material to be handled. There are, however, 
many exceptional cases where the material to be crated 
is of such a nature that it may be necessary to depart 
from these rules. All manufacturers contributing 
material for Government uses should remember that con- 
ditions under which this material is handled are prob- 
ably very much rougher and that the facilities for 
handling it are fewer than ordinarily is the case in export 
service. While the nature of the contents indicates the 
manner in which it is to ride, whenever possible material 
should be packed so that the packages will rest safely on 
side, top, bottom or end. 

Strapping on Crates. — In the use of strapping on 
crates there are so many forms, with such varied uses 
and functions, that it is not practical to lay down any 



SocWa* Melt*x* 





Figure 7 

fundamental rules to govern; yet straps are. absolutely 
essential in certain cases, and must not be omitted in 
those instances, particularly at corners and at joints. 

Standakd Baling Specifications of the War 
Department 



Size of Bale. — Bales shall be made to conform to the 
following standard size: Length, 30 inches; width, 15 
inches; height, variable, but approaching 15 inches as 
nearly as possible,, but not being less than 14 inches nor 
more than 19 inches ; gross weight, 70 to 140 pounds. 

The only exception to this rule will be when the ma- 
terial to be baled is of such size and weight that it is 



150 EXPORT PACKING 

impossible or impracticable to make it into a bale of this 
standard size and weight. 

Number of Articles per Bale. — The purpose in baling 
is to pack the maximum number of articles in the mini- 
mum of space without damaging them. 

Methods of Folding and Forming Articles in Bales. — 
Care should be taken in folding and forming that articles 
will produce neat, uniform and compact bales ; care taken 
that joints be broken to avoid cutting of covering by 
straps. 

Covering. — Bales shall be covered with burlap of 
weight not less than 10 ounces to 40 inches in width. 

For the standard bale 30 by 15 by 14 to 19 inches, two 
pieces are required, each piece 50 by 40 inches wide. 
Larger sizes require correspondingly larger pieces. 

Interlining Paper. — Each bale shall have underneath 
the burlap a lining of waterproof paper. 

The interlining paper shall conform to the following 
specifications : 

60/60 Waterproof Kraft Wrapping Paper for Baling 

Weight. — Shall be not less than 330 pounds. (Two 
sheets 60-pound Kraft duplexed with asphaltum.) 36 X 
50 — 480 (24 X 36 — 480, 160 pounds). 

Stock: Shall be 100 per cent sulphate pulp. 

Bursting strength : Shall be not less than 140 points. 
Bursting strength after exposure of the waterproofed 
side to 3 inches of water for three hours shall not de- 
crease more than 25 per cent. 

Water Resistance. — The paper shall not wet or 
dampen through in 10 days. 

Waterproofing.— The paper shall be duplexed with 
and one surface waterproofed with asphaltum or its 
equal. The paper shall be flexible, but not tacky under 
ordinary weather conditions where a duplex paper is 
used. 

Cohesion. — The plies shall not separate under service 
conditions. 



OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 151 

Basis of Purchase.— For 1,000 sheets 36 by 50. 

Explanation of Tests. — Bursting strength is deter- 
mined with the Mullen tester or testing machine giving 
equivalent results, the paper clamped with the water- 
proofed side up. Water-resistance test to be made with 
a column of water 3 inches in height after the paper has 
been crumpled in the hand. 

For the standard bale 30 by 15 by 14 to 19 inches, 
experience has shown that it is desirable to have at least 
two sheets, each sheet 50 inches long and 36 inches wide. 
Larger sizes require correspondingly larger sheets. The 
sides of bales should be reenforced when necessary with 
fiber boards, %-inch slats, or other light material, to add 
protection and rigidity. 

Banding. — The banding shall be of cold-rolled unan- 
nealed steel % inch wide, not less than No. 26 gauge. It 
shall be painted or coated to prevent rust and shall have 
a tensile strength of not less than 850 pounds. 

Not less than four bands shall be used on each bale. 
The two outside bands shall be placed approximately 4 
inches from each end, and the intermediate bands shall 
be placed equidistant from each and from the end bands. 

Bands shall be applied by a mechanical stretching 
tool and must be stretched so tightly that the compres- 
sion of the bale will be held and that the bands will re- 
main in place and not slip off over the ends of the bale. 

Sealing of Bands. — The ends of bands shall be sealed 
with a metal sleeve or seal designed to be either punched 
or crimped. The breaking strength of the sealed joint 
shall not be less than 50 per cent of the breaking strength 
of the strapping. 

Loose ends of bands shall be folded under, cut round, 
cut or broken off so that no spider is left projecting. 

Sewing. — The burlap shall be sewed up with three- 
ply linen or twine of equal quality of not less than 40 
pounds tensile strength. Bales shall be sewed sides and 
ends, and each stitch shall be knotted, and stitches shall 
be not less than 2 inches in length. 

Ears. — Not less than 5 inches of surplus burlap shall 



152 EXPORT PACKING 

be gathered together on each of the four corners and 
securely sewed into " ears" for handles. All ends of 
twine shall be securely fastened. 

Stenciling. — Stencil black, United States Army stand- 
ard, must be used, and the marking shall be in letters or 
figures as large as possible. 

Standakd Specifications of the Wae Department for 

Marking Packages 

No advertising matter shall appear on packages. 

Stenciling is preferable to hand marking. The height 
of letters shall conform to the size and character of pack- 
age, but shall not be less than % inch. When marking 
with stencils, use only United States Army stencil black 
standard paint of the following composition : 

Pigment, 50 per cent. 

Liquid, 50 per cent. 

Pigment shall consist of : 

Drop black, 50 per cent. 

Calcium carbonate, 50 per cent. 

Liquid portion shall consist of : 

Varnish, 70 per cent. 

Combined dryer and thinner, 30 per cent. 

The thinner shall consist of turpentine or volatile 
mineral spirits or a mixture thereof. 

The varnish should be a clear spar varnish. For 
bales or crates use the standard system of marking. For 
marking machinery carts, structural steel, or similar 
commodities, use United States standard paint, either 
white or of the corps color. 

"Tests and Suggestions for the Nailing of Boxes" 

By J. A. Newlin in "The Barrel and Box" 

"The purpose of nailing a box is to hold it together 
and give it rigidity. To use more nails or larger nails 
than are necessary to accomplish this purpose is a waste 



OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 



153 



of both material and labor. To use fewer nails than are 
necessary to hold properly under ordinary conditions re- 
sults in breakage of the box and damage to the contents. 
" Tests at the Forest Products Laboratory of the 
United States Forest Service, at Madison, Wis., and 
observations of packages in transit and at their destina- 
tion, have shown conclusively that where the nailing is 
insufficient the package cannot be improved by putting 
in heavier lumber. Observation has shown also that the 




Figure 9. Shrinking of fibers from driven nail. 

majority of failures in ordinary boxes are due, not to the 
lumber but to the nailing. It is also evident that in many 
instances a better package could be obtained with much 
thinner material by the use of a few more nails. 

"In arriving at the proper nailing there are a num- 
ber of factors that must be considered. These involve the 
nail, its length, diameter, and surface, and the species of 
wood, its thickness and condition. 

"It is desirable to know whether the nail should be 
smooth, barbed, or cement-coated. Our tests have shown 
that at least in the ordinary sizes, barbed nails are not 



154 



EXPORT PACKING 



so efficient in box construction as smooth ones. Ap- 
parently the ability of the barbs to increase the resist- 
ance of the nail to withdrawal is more than offset by 
their tendency to tear the wood. Cement-coated nails 
have given uniformly better results than smooth nails, 
although different lots of cement-coated nails have shown 
greater variation in efficiency than smooth nails. The 
holding power of the cement-coated nail is from 10 to 30 
per cent greater than that of the same sized smooth nail. 
On an average, a box built up with the cement-coated 
nails will withstand about one and one-half times as much 
rough handling as a box made with the same number and 
gauge of smooth nails. 3 

"Length and Diameter of Nails. — If the nail is short 
and is driven into soft wood, the weaving of the box in 
transportation and shocks due to rough handling will 
cause the nail to work back and forth to its full length 
in the wood and come loose almost immediately, notwith- 
standing the fact that it may be of comparatively heavy 
gauge. 

1 ' If the nail is very slender it will not drive well, and 
the longer it is the greater must be its diameter in order 
to insure that it will drive. If a very slender nail is 
driven to considerable depth in a piece of hard wood, the 
shocks of transportation and handling will bend the nail 
between the two planks of the box and it may fail by 
breaking off rather than by pulling out. 

3 Note — Mr. D. L. Quinn, late Director of the Forest Products Labora- 
tory, explains nailing tests at that institution as follows: 

' ' The holding power of cement coated, plain, and barbed nails was 
obtained by testing a standard 7 -penny nail driven to a depth of 1 inch in 
dry wood and is given below." 



Species of Wood Used in the Box 



Cement coated 
Plain nails .... 
Barbed nails. . 



Longleaf 



Basswood 



Beech 



Load in pounds per nail 




430 
400 
335 



^3 
I* 



II 



XI .5 



■) * <ri «6 



9 
C 



§ i 



is 









.5$ 



o 



3 3 S 






!f> » b 









55 






o 

s s 3 a 3 3 8 



^ ^ 03 03 



5 

o 
o 

I 

I 



S3 ft 



is 

f,Ov O 

<5< JO <Q 




T3 § g~~ 5 * 

•7/w 3 no nnd oi ojwnoiy saunod 



^h: 



Figure 10. 



155 



156 EXPORT PACKING 

1 ' The diameter of a nail should be great enough so that 
it may be driven easily, which is usually the limiting 
factor, but should not be so small that it will break in 
use. It should be such that with the weaving of the pack- 
age in transportation and the shocks of handling it will 
not be bent and will not work back and forth to its full 
depth in the wood. The proper balance is reached when 
there is an equal likelihood of the wood failing or of the 
nails breaking off or pulling from the end. 

"Head of the Nail. — As a rule the head of the nail is 
too small, and failure of the box occurs because the head 
is pulled through the sides. With the larger heads made 
in accordance with the ordinary practice the material is 
too thin and the head breaks off. It is thought that a 
much better nail can be made than is being produced at 
the present time. 

"The Wood. — The species of wood is of importance, 
since each species has certain characteristics of weight 
and hardness which indicate its ability to hold nails, its 
strength and its likelihood of splitting, and thus deter- 
mine the proper thickness of material and size and 
spacing of nails. 

1 i The most significant difference in the various species 
of wood is in their dry weight. A piece of lumber of 
very light weight has but little wood substance. It has 
been shown that all wood substance is of practically the 
same weight and that the weight of a piece of dry lumber, 
when free from resinous material, is an indication of the 
amount of wood substance it contains. It will be evident, 
therefore, that without sufficient wood substance it is 
impossible to have strength or nail-holding power, and 
that the more wood substance there is in a given species 
the greater its strength and nail-holding power are likely 
to be. 

"Figure 10 is a curve in which has been plotted the 
density or dry weight of the various species against their 
ability to retain nails driven into side grain. In this 
connection it may be noted that, with practically all spe- 
cies, the resistance to withdrawal is greater if the nail is 



OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 157 

driven into the side grain than if it is driven into the end 
grain. The curve shows conclusively that the heavier 
species hold nails much better. As a rule all the strength 
properties of wood increase with the weight. When a 
nail is driven into a dense piece of wood it produces a 
much greater splitting force than when the same nail is 
driven into a soft piece of wood. A dense piece of wood 
has greater resistance to splitting than a light piece of 
wood. These two factors tend to counterbalance each 
other but do not do so entirely. The dense species, as a 
rule, will split somewhat more than the lighter species 
with the same nailing. 

"The lockiness of grain and other species characteris- 
tics are important factors in determining the resistance 
to splitting. 

"Condition of Wood. — Green wood is much softer 
than dry wood, and the nails can be driven in and with- 
drawn from green much more readily than from dry 
wood. 

' ' The moisture content of wood, when green, may vary 
from 30 to 200 per cent of the dry weight, depending on 
the species and on conditions of growth. As the wood 
dries it first loses the free water in the cells and after- 
wards that from the cell walls. When the water begins 
to leave the cell walls the wood begins to shrink in both 
width and thickness but not materially in length. This 
causes the fibers, which are bent down along the nail as 
illustrated in photograph fig. 9, to shrink away from the 
nail in the direction of the end grain, in which direction 
the nail was being most firmly held in the first place. 
Thus we have the nail which has been driven into green 
material, afterwards dried, held only by two sides. The 
weaving action during transportation will readily cause 
such nails to come loose and work out of the box without 
any rough handling, and the boxes will not stand more 
than 10 per cent as much rough handling as those nailed 
up at 15 per cent moisture and kept in practically that 
condition. 

"A nail driven into a dry piece of wood which after- 



158 EXPORT PACKING 

wards is allowed to become soaked and then dried will 
act as does a nail driven into green lumber. 

" Boxes made of lumber in the proper moisture condi- 
tion will stand ordinary storage without any appreciable 
loss in the ability of the nail to hold. 

"The effect of over-driving nails is to reduce their re- 
sistance to withdrawal, the proportionate reduction prob- 
ably being greater in the case of dry wood than in green. 

"Thickness of Material and Spacing of Nails. — After 
the above fundamentals as to nails and wood, considera- 
tion should be given to the thickness of material and the 
spacing of nails. 

"The ends of the boxes must be of such thickness that 
the nails will not run out under ordinary conditions. 
The nails must be small enough in diameter so that they 
will not cause splitting of the material. The inclination 
to split is increased with decreased spacing. The spacing, 
then, must not be so close as to cause splitting. 

"Experiments have been made and a great many ob- 
servations taken on the splitting of material by nails. 
The following conclusions have been drawn and appear 
to be substantiated by two years of observation : 

"In using the slender or box nail in species of medium 
hardness, the - penny ' of the nail cannot be greater than 
the thickness, in eighths of an inch, of the wood which 
holds the point of the nail. 

"For the softer woods nails may be one ' penny' 
larger and sometimes even two ' pennies. ' For the hard 
wood nails one ' penny' smaller should be used. 

"The ordinary box machine, when nailing boxes of the 
sizes usually used for canned foods, cannot space the 
nails close enough to cause splitting of the ends or to 
develop the strength of the lumber. 

"The following rule has been suggested for guidance 
in the spacing of nails for domestic 4 shipment : 

"For six ' penny' or smaller nails held in the side 
grain there should be a spacing of 2 inches, and for the 

* See Capt. Knowlton's chapter on Box Construction for his recom- 
mendations as to nailing export cases. 






OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 159 

same nail in the end grain a spacing of 1% inches. For 
larger nails the spacing should increase Vi inch for each 
'penny.' To a great many people this spacing will ap- 
pear to be too close, since it gives many more nails 
than have formerly been used. As a matter of fact, how- 
ever, it is only about two-thirds of the number that can 
be put in before excessive splitting of the ends is encoun- 
tered, and is only about two-thirds of the number re- 
quired to balance fully the strength of the box in other 
respects. Therefore, even with this spacing, the nailing 
is still the weakest point of the ordinary box." 

Special Box Corner Design to Prevent Loosening of 

Metal Straps 

From Technical Notes of Forest Products Laboratory 

Metal strapping applied to a box made of thin mate- 
rial cannot be fastened by nails driven into the edges of 
the boards, but must be joined by one of the various 
fastening devices and held in place by tension. 

When first applied, the strap is very tight and no diffi- 
culty is experienced in keeping it on the box, but when 
the box is stored for a period of several months the 
shrinkage of the lumber usually reduces the circumfer- 
ence to such an extent that the strap falls off in trans- 
portation. 

Such loosening of the straps may be successfully pre- 
vented on canned food boxes or, in fact, on any box 
carrying a commodity which has sufficient strength to 
resist the strap tension, by building the box in such a 
manner that neither the top nor the bottom laps the sides. 
The accompanying sketch will make the construction 
clear. The strap is applied in the usual manner and 
drawn very snug. The tension of the strap is sufficient 
to spring the sides, top and bottom of the box in against 
the contents so that the corner boards lap in the center. 
As a result, the middle of the box is smaller than the 
ends, and the straps will not slip off, even though the box 
shrinks. (See sketch page 160.) 



160 



EXPORT PACKING 



Several such boxes were made up at the Forest Prod- 
ucts Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin, of lumber contain- 
ing 15 to 20 per cent moisture and, after packing and 
strapping, these boxes were dried to a moisture content 
of 9 or 10 per cent, which is about the moisture content 
they would come to in a heated warehouse. It was found 
that, even after the boxes had shrunk, the straps could 
not be removed from them without cutting away the 
corners. When the boxes were tested in the revolving 
drum the straps showed a tendency to work toward the 
center rather than to slip over the ends. 




Courtesy of Forest Products Laboratory 

Box Handles of Webbing Instead of Rope Save 
Shipping Space 



From Technical Notes of Forest Products Laboratory 

In export shipment, boxes loaded with 200 to 300 
pounds are most easily manipulated when provided with 
handles. Usually such box handles are made of rope, in- 
serted through holes in the ends of the box and secured 
with wall knots, or inserted in grooves on the under sides 
of the cleats on the ends of the box, and held in place by 
nails or screws driven through the cleats. 



OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 



161 



The former method of fastening has the disadvantage 
of taking up valuable space in the interior of the box. 
The latter increases the thickness of the cleats to provide 
for a groove of sufficient depth to hold the rope, thereby 
increasing the displacement of the box. Since the rates 
for export shipments are virtually based upon the cubical 
contents of the package, the displacement is an important 
factor. 



o 
o 

o 

o 
o 


o o o 
o o 


; X 
o 

o 

o 








V^g^ o ~~y 


o 

o j) 



<? 



<7 



\ 



t \ 



?J \ s 




Courtesy of Forest Products Laboratory 

A box handle made of webbing instead of rope has 
been suggested by the Forest Products Laboratory as a 
means of conserving space. For this purpose webbing 
about % in. thick and 1% m - wide, which has a breaking 
strength of 800 lbs., should prove suitable. It may be 
inserted through saw-cuts made parallel to the grain in 
the ends of the box, turned down flat inside, and nailed 
securely with large headed roofing nails. 

Such a handle takes up no extra space either inside 
or outside of the box. It is easily made and has a lifting 
strength with a large margin of safety. - 



CHAPTER VI 
BALING VERSUS CASING 

By David T. Abekckgmbie x 

THE men in charge of government packing during 
the war were face to face with the necessity of 
getting goods to the other side as quickly as pos- 
sible, at a time when the amount of cargo space available 
was exceedingly small. It was our business to see that 
the problem was met and that the extreme handicaps of 
the situation were overcome, and with this end in view 
methods were adopted which were termed radical ; under 
normal conditions they would probably not have been 
used or would have been adopted very gradually. The 
results proved, however, that in all cases the spur of 
necessity was highly productive, and there is no doubt 
that the experience obtained during the period of war 
effort is a splendid heritage for the department of over- 
seas packing ; similarly the experience in other branches 
of organized government war-effort will enjoy wide ap- 
plication in the industrial development of the future. 

Before the war baling was a method used both in 
domestic and overseas packing for raw material and 
piece goods, but the extensive application adopted during 
the strenuous war-effort had not been made in com- 
mercial work. I had used various types of bales in my 
own business, but the larger use of these methods had, I 
believe, not been attempted and the problem of baling 
had certainly not been attacked with anything like the 
vigor or completeness that were made necessary by the 
exigencies of war. To illustrate this point, in my own 

1 Officer in charge Packing Division, Zone Supply Office, New York, 
1918-1919. Chief, Packing Service Branch, Director of Storage, War 
Department, Washington, D. C, 1919. President, the Abercrombie Corpora- 
tion, New York City, expert packing for export. 

162 



BALING VERSUS CASING 163 

business we had developed a very good bale for clothing, 
but our experience was limited to only a few articles, 
while in the baling work for the army we had to care for 
a variety of commodities which superficially would seem 
to be unfitted for baling practice. When one day our 
department was presented with some 327 dozen saws and 
it was our business to pack them in a rush, obviously we 
had something quite new and an article which hardly 
seemed adapted to the work we were doing, and yet we 
baled those saws, saved costly space and made an excel- 
lent shipment. As time went on we baled many other 
commodities which would seem to be far removed from 
the possibilities of my department. There are certain 
things you cannot bale, such as will not stand compres- 
sion, but whenever a group of commodities presented a 
new packing angle wq could in the majority of cases 
decide to bale them with every probability of success. 

In one plant our average production the first month 
was thirteen tons a day, and we thought this was very 
good work, but in the month of May, 1918, our daily out- 
put was 310 tons a day, and this average was maintained 
constantly until the armistice was signed. We were ready 
then with the new methods and machines we had in- 
augurated to increase our production to 600 tons daily, 
for the baling department had been called on to perform 
a far more comprehensive work than before. We were 
ready to pack the increase before deliveries began, and 
the armistice was the reason for cancellations instead of 
deliveries. The results obtained were very important, 
and the practice that ruled during the war is now being 
applied to normal industrial work, while the extension 
of this practice that was prevented by the termination of 
the war is being perfected. 

1 am perhaps giving the impression that baling as 
packing practice is as yet not widely in use, and if I am 
giving this impression it is correct but only in one sense. 
The technique of baling in the shipment of raw and 
piece goods both to points within the United States and 
overseas is used, and there is a beginning of baling some 



164 EXPORT PACKING 

manufactured goods, but I do not believe that the bale is 
as yet employed to anything like the extent that could be 
done if the advantages and savings of this method were 
fully appreciated and the force of habit could be broken. 
The savings are extremely important and goods properly 
baled are better packed than cased goods, and in every 
case baled goods will arrive at destination in far better 
shape than the same goods cased, while the economy 
effected by the use of the bale cannot be obtained by the 
use of any case yet devised, either as to cost of material 
or labor. To illustrate the points made here I am going 
to make use of my records obtained during the war ; the 
work during this period was on such a vast scale and 
covered so many different commodities that no ordinary 
commercial records could give as much information. 

Economy of Process. — After the signing of the armis- 
tice goods shipped to France began to come back to us 
in the original bales, and among this great mass I remem- 
ber two bales containing 460 pairs of leggings which came 
back to us in just as good shape as they left the country. 
It happened that the balance of this shipment of leggings 
was packed in cases, and when these came back we found 
that many of the cases had been broken in shipment and 
a considerable portion of the contents lost and damaged. 
The two bales took up a little over six cubic feet and cost 
the Government $6.60 to return to the United States, 
while the cost of the same quantity of the same goods in 
cases was $30.80. This is a difference of more than five 
and one-quarter (514) cents on every pair of leggings for 
freight alone, an amount of money that would represent 
a big portion of the profit to any one handling the line. 
I could multiply this example by hundreds of a similar 
character, but this is sufficient to show immediately that 
where it is possible to bale goods no other method should 
be used. 

Another great saving that is made by baling goods is 
in the tare, for baled goods will save 97 per cent in tare 
as compared with cased goods. When we entered the war 
we were packing in cases overcoats, blouses, underwear, 



BALING VERSUS CASING 165 

breeches — in fact everything that a soldier uses, and it 
was a regular thing (QMC Manual) to require 48 pounds 
of overcoats packed in 40 pounds of case. In 1917 and 
after it was very difficult to buy cases and we could not 
be particular about what sort of wood was used. In con- 
sequence vast quantities of yellow pine were bought and 
made up into cases, and these cases often weighed more 
than 90 pounds, and this 90 pounds of case had to be 
shipped not alone to Europe but all over the United 
States, enriching the express companies, it is true, but 
costing the Government large sums of money. We paid 
as high as $14 per hundred pounds when we had to send 
goods to the far west, and it does not take much effort to 
figure the immense loss when 48 pounds of goods had to 
go in 90 pounds of case, and when on every pound 14 
cents or more had to be paid for transportation and in 
addition an excessive price had to be paid for cases. If 
we had used then as we did in January, 1918, bale pack- 
ing we would have saved 45 per cent in transportation, 
70 per cent in space and 82 percent in the cost of packing 
materials for the war. Our saving throughout the whole 
period, calculating a list of 141 articles packed in stand- 
ard 4 cubic ft. bales and also in standard (previous to 
January, 1918) 6 1/5 cubic ft. cases is shown by the fol- 
lowing ratios : 

This comparison is based on an equal quantity of 
goods in each one of the ratios. 

Number of packages 1 (Bale) to 2.1 (Cases) 

Cubic ft. of space 1 (Bale) to 3 .94 (Cases) 

Cost of container 1 (Bale) to 5 .50 (Cases) 

Packers' cost (labor) 1 (Bale) to 2 . 50 (Cases) 

Up to November, 1918, the amount baled in the New 
York District was a little over 137,000 ship tons, and 
although no one knows exactly what it cost to send over 
a ship ton, there was an arbitrary cost adopted in Wash- 
ington of $240.00. However, I know of a good many 
instances where the cost was nearer $340.00 a ship ton, 
and there was an instance of a shipment where the cost 
ran as high as $22.50 a cubic foot. I believe that when 



166 EXPORT PACKING 

the bill is finally settled and all the costs of convoys, 
losses and other incidental expenses are figured out that 
$10 a cubic foot would represent a fraction of the real 
cost. The fact that $6 a cubic foot or $240.00 a ton, is 
the price that has been fixed probably will not affect the 
result so far as the individual citizen is concerned, for 
the money has been spent and we have got to pay it. 

But what does interest the individual citizen is that 
this great cost was not altogether unproductive, for out 
of this immense transportation task certain absolute 
facts were developed which will mean great savings to 
the people in the future. To put the situation in a dif- 
ferent form it may be safely stated, that the saving to 
the Quartermaster Corps resulting from the use of bales 
instead of cases was over $100,000,000. Had the war con- 
tinued we should have been able to bring about still 
greater saving, and had we been prepared to use bales 
at the start we would have cut out big slices in the 
nation's bill of expenses. 

With reference to warehousing, the use of bales shows 
important savings in rent, for baled goods not only occupy 
less space than cased goods, but they can be stowed much 
more compactly. I believe it is safe to say that fully 
70 per cent in space is saved by baling. There is great 
saving in dunnage, and another important saving arises 
from the relatively small space occupied by a baling 
plant as compared with that absorbed by a casing plant. 
In the latter the wood of which the cases are made is 
itself bulky, and the manufactured cases occupy a great 
deal of valuable floor space, which in these times of in- 
adequate storage space and high rents is a considera- 
tion of great importance. The baling plant, on the other 
hand, occupies less than one-sixth of the space taken up 
by the casing plant, the material of which the bales are 
made can be most compactly stored, and there is no space 
taken up by an intermediate product represented in the 
casing plant by the unfilled box. 

We have thus clearly demonstrated important savings 
in the chief factors of shipping expenses : we have saving 




Use of Forming Machine. 
Garments bricked m forming machine for construction of preliminary bale. 

167 



/ 




Operating a Hand Press. 
168 



BALING VERSUS CASING 169 

in space and consequent saving in the cost of any form 
of transportation ; we have saving in tare, which is of the 
utmost importance in shipments going to foreign coun- 
tries or anywhere ; we have saving in the cost of the pack- 
age, which to-day is an element of the utmost importance, 
and we have saving in the space occupied by the shipping 
department, another very important item in the total cost. 
And to these economies must be added the equally im- 
portant one that the bale will travel where the case 
hardly can, that the goods are abundantly and fully pro- 
tected, that the range of adaptability of the bale runs 
from socks to overcoats, from water bags to cooks' caps, 
from nose bags to tents. Another great saving is that of 
natural conservation ; in our baling a bale used 2% yards 
of burlap; the same amount of goods require 60 feet 
B.M. of lumber when cased. Burlap grows two crops a 
year ; lumber takes 30 years to grow ; acreage is as 1 to 60. 

Possibilities of Commercial Use. — It seems to me that 
I must emphasize here the effect that this war work has 
had on civilian trade, for as I understand it the purpose 
of this treatise on packing is not to show anything new to 
the man who has solved his packing problems through 
long years of grief and struggle, but to tell the newcomer 
something of what can be done and should be done in 
packing overseas goods. Up to the time we started our 
work of compressing fabricated goods I knew of no con- 
cern that made a practice of compressing fully made-up 
clothing. As I have stated, I had done this work in a 
small way in my own business, but when I called the 
attention of the authorities to the possibilities of the 
method I was told flatly and simply that it could not be 
done. I was told it would break the buttons, that the 
goods could never be freed from the creasing incident 
to baling processes, that it was a fool idea and a great 
many other things equally theoretical which were proved 
in actual practice to be incorrect. 

When a man walks on a carpet, say he weighs 200 
pounds, the actual pressure is fully 1,200 pounds to the 
square inch maximum, as one-sixth of a square inch is 



170 EXPORT PACKING 

about as much as is in contact as his foot first falls. It 
is a fact known to all of us that hotels and other buildings 
where foot traffic is heavy almost invariably use a heavy 
pile fabric for carpets, as it has been proved that this 
class of floor covering lasts longer and costs less per diem 
than any other suitable material. Eeturning to the but- 
tons, I folded up some overcoats (September, 1917) and 
sent them to a laboratory at my own expense, as I had not 
learned then how to get the Government to pay for such 
things, and I found that we could put on a pressure of 
many tons before the button collapsed, and then the metal 
buttons or shanks did not cut the fabric. It was a simple 
natter to calculate then that if we kept a certain maximum 
we could use any pressure under this in making up our 
bales of clothing. I already knew that 92 pounds is a 
weight that one man can handle most economically, and 
we accepted that as the standard weight for a package. 
Then I investigated the specific gravity of clothing and 
equipage and we calculated that this would average less 
than four cubic feet for 92 pounds. 

The best package therefore we decided would measure 
(average) four cubic feet; it should be twice as long as 
broad and a little less in height than in width, weigh 92 
pounds and would, to be exact, be 15 x 30 x 14 inches. 
The covering was 10 oz. burlap for outside, with two 
sheets of expansive (both ways) paraffined baling paper 
for interlining; on rare occasions we doubled the covering. 
This package is the correct size for handling during the 
baling process; it fitted the French cars and American 
escort wagons and automobile trucks, and could be 
handled by one person of any nationality, and we put 
more clothing in a freight car than had ever been accom- 
modated before, loading many of the articles to the 
capacity of the car. And this result was obtained in a 
short time in spite of the fact that when we started we 
did not have any machines nor was there a machine made 
that was adapted for the work. Day after day we packed 
millions of articles in our New York plant, 16,000 pairs of 
socks in every ton, 300 overcoats to the ton and so on 



BALING VERSUS CASING 171 

through all the list of things that fighting men need when 
they are in the field. Over the river at Bush Terminal 
No. 22, where the first plant was established, the bale 
was shown to be a method in overseas packing that could 
accomplish astonishing things, and that could effect 
economies of time and money that were absolutely out of 
the question by any other method. When we were pack- 
ing 340 tons a day the complete organization numbered 
some 2,230 persons, and this number included the re- 
ceivers, routers, inspectors, warehousemen and shippers. 

Organization of a Department. — Careful routing of 
the goods is very important in any well-organized plant, 
and the plant should not be put in operation until ex- 
periment has shown that the routing is correct. The op- 
erations in baling are very closely related, and the more 
the work tables can be grouped and the closer together 
all working elements can be arranged just that much will 
be gained in efficiency and speed. There were certain de- 
tails in our work, such as receiving and inspecting and 
checking, that will not enter into the average commercial 
equipment and will not be a part of the baling depart- 
ment, but with us the checking and receiving were in- 
timately related to the baling department, so that once 
installed the system worked automatically. But through- 
out the whole process every movement was related to the 
ultimate purpose: the shipment of a bale. A bale was 
completed 40 minutes after receiving the goods. 

Another important consideration is the fixing of re- 
sponsibility for mistakes in packing, and this can be done 
perfectly with our method. Each bale carried a num- 
bered tag signed by every one who worked on that bale. 
In each of our packages that made up a bale there was 
enclosed a slip, and all persons having to do with the 
work on that particular package signed their names, no 
matter what the character of the work, inspecting or fold- 
ing. When the goods reached the other side, if there was 
a defect, all that was necessary was to return the slip 
with the statement of complaint, and the matter could be 
absolutely traced to the inspector or folder at fault. 



172 EXPORT PACKING 

When the bale was shipped the tag was cut from the bale 
and retained, leaving the number on the bale. Thus a 
record was kept. 

How to Bale. — In folding goods for baling each article 
is folded in its own way and made into a package of a 
certain number. The idea here is to obtain the same num- 
ber of laminations in each package of goods entering the 
bale, and this similarity in folding must obtain whether 
goods be mosquito bars or trousers. With this identity 
of folding in each separate piece of goods it is also easy 
to obtain perfect compactness and uniformity in width 
and length, which are so necessary to any successful 
baling operation; then the correct number of packages 
are laid to make up a bale, and when pressure is applied 
you get a minimum size bale for the amount of goods it 
contains. 

In practice we found that the results described in the 
above paragraph were little short of remarkable when 
compared with former results. Under the system of pack- 
ing first used only 50 blankets were cased into a ship ton, 
but with our baling system we put 256 into the same 
space. We put 962 mosquito bars where formerly only 
116 had been placed, and the whole secret of this result 
was in so folding the goods that abs.olute uniformity in 
the size of package was obtained. We had a standard 
size for our bales and this size was used no matter what 
the goods : blankets, gloves, breeches, blouses, overcoats, 
caps, hospital tents, and so forth. 

Another important point is the density of the bale, for 
unless the proper density is obtained much of the virtue 
is taken out of the work. Cotton has been baled for a 
good many years in the south and one would suppose that 
the wide experience incident to that .work had solved the 
question of proper density. But we packed some of our 
garments in bales that had nearly twice the density of a 
bale of cotton, although our goods were not a raw fiber 
that admits of almost any compression, but manufactured 
goods, many of which had parts more or less susceptible 
to damage. 




Standard and Commercial Bales. 

Former measures k cu. ft. and contains Ik comfortables; latter measures 20 
cu. ft. and contains 12. 




Standard Bale and Case. 

Bale measures if cu. ft. and contains twice as many units as case measuring 
6 cu. ft. 




Example of Poor Packing. 

The U. S. Armv packing service found that bales in many instances withstood 
rough handling better than cases. 

173 




On the Bridge at Galatea. 
Shows method of transporting furniture in Turkey. 




Courtesy of The Americas. 

Example of Poor Crating. 

Crate containing" automobile* wheels which was broken when it arrived at its 
destination. 

174 



BALING VERSUS CASING 175 

Twenty-four tons pressure on a surface of 450 square 
inches harmed nothing. Our officers' uniforms carried 
splendidly, so did our fur caps, fur gloves and fur Paakas 
to Siberia. Fur caps, the most expensive things we 
shipped, $3,000 worth in a bale, arrived safely at destina- 
tion and not a single complaint was made on account of 
loss or stealing. 

In making up the bale the packages were placed one on 
top of the other in layers like masonry. The bales were 
protected with waterproof expansive paper covering be- 
sides the regular burlap covering. Many of these bales 
crossed the water, suffered exposure that rusted the metal 
bands almost completely through, and yet came back to 
the United States with the goods inside just as smooth 
and perfect as the day they left our shores, showing 
beyond question that burlap and paper make as sturdy 
a protective envelope as any case that was ever devised. 
Cased goods returned were a mess. The stealing from 
the bales was practically nil, for in this class of packing 
it is very difficult for a package or piece to be removed ; 
to do so a steel band must be cut, and that would not 
escape detection. It is true that we lost an occasional 
bale as well as case, but tampering with the bale itself 
and removal of contents was practically unknown. Our 
records show that there was one complaint of mismarking 
to 30,000 bales. This, I think, is a very good record 
indeed. 

Another interesting point about the bale was the 
salyage value of the material used in covering. When 
wooden cases got to France and were opened at the front 
they could not be burned because of the smoke, and they 
could not be well used for other purposes. The covering 
of the bale, on the contrary, came in splendidly for many 
uses, particularly for sandbags, each piece of burlap hav- 
ing been cut to make two sandbags. 

(Marking. — Our bales were marked with numbers, each 
number designating a particular commodity, and the 
same method could be profitably used in a great deal of 
export work. It does not matter what language a man 



176 EXPORT PACKING 

speaks, he may be Chinese, African or Portuguese, but 
this notwithstanding he will learn immediately the sig- 
nificance of a number, while printed or painted words 
would be unintelligible. And so we used a four-inch black 
number on a buff background that could be distinguished 
a long way off. We had a series of basic numbers and 
another of subsidiary numbers. For example^, "15" 
stood for overcoats, as that was the quantity put into a 
bale, and when the "15" had a number "40" by the side 
of it, separated by a dash, this was a bale of overcoats 
size 40, the left-hand number denoting the quantity in the 
bale, i. e., 15. This was done throughout. There were 
different sorts of gauntlets : heavy leather, lined, chauf- 
feur, and so on. Each had its basic number and another 
number alongside to designate the particular size of 
glove. In a short time we found that the men became 
acquainted with the numbers and rarely made a mistake. 
This helped greatly in warehousing. We found the ques- 
tion of hooks was solved by having ears on the bales for 
handles, and the moderate weight rendered hooks un- 
necessary. 

Doubtless there are questions that I have not answered 
and that will occur to every reader, but the space at my 
disposal does not permit a lengthier discussion of the 
subject of baling. The point I have tried to make here is 
that of the value of baling as a shipping and packing 
method, and I believe that what I have said will be suf- 
ficient to cause investigation on the part of the individual 
shipper. If this is done the correctness of my statements 
and conclusions will be fully demonstrated. 

It should be appreciated that I have attempted here 
to show clearly the tremendous possibilities in the baling 
of goods, and in our practice with overseas shipments 
during the war we found that there were very few com- 
modities that could not be satisfactorily baled. However, 
I do not wish any shipper to assume that the practice 
illustrated is suitable in all commercial transactions. In 
the case of shoes, hardware and other goods, bulk ship- 
ments in bales should be made only after an understand- 



BALING VERSUS CASING 111 

ing has been reached with the consignee that such form 
of packing would be satisfactory. It is quite possible 
that consignees would desire shoes, hardware, ready- 
made clothing and other commodities packed in certain 
form and in cases rather than in bales, and the shipper 
must be thoroughly sure of the wishes of the consignee 
before proceeding to make up the package. The point 
that I have desired to stress in this article is that the bale 
offers a most economical and useful means of packing 
and shipping goods, and that the possibilities of this 
method should be always considered in any packing 
problem. 



CHAPTEE VII 

THE FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY 
AT MADISON, WISCONSIN 

TEN years ago the Forest Service of the U. S. 
Department of Agriculture established the Forest 
Products Laboratory on the Campus of the Uni- 
versity of Wisconsin, at Madison, Wisconsin, and the 
record of the laboratory during the period of its exis- 
tence has been one of incalculable usefulness to the* 
Government and to the nation at large. At first the 
laboratory occupied one small building and had a meagre 
annual appropriation for its support, but so important 
a place has it taken in the work to which it is devoted 
and so extensive has its cooperation become with the 
Government and business interests of the country, that 
to-day it occupies several large buildings, its personnel 
numbers over two hundred people and it is receiving 
nearly a half million dollars a year for its support. 
It is without doubt one of the world's greatest industrial 
laboratories, and so thoroughly has it proved its useful- 
ness that a number of large organizations are now con- 
structing laboratories of their own, modeled after the 
one at Madison. So far as we know, Canada is the only 
foreign country that possesses a similar institution, and 
this was planned along the lines laid down at the plant 
in the United States. 

Its Service to Export Manufacturers and Shippers.— 
In one of its bulletins the Forest Products Laboratory 
states that "no industrial research is complete until its 
results have received commercial demonstration and the 
industry concerned is reaping the benefits. It is essential, 
therefore, that proper contact be maintained between the 
industrial research laboratory and the industries which 
it serves.' ' This we believe expresses in a few words the 

178 



THE FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY 179 

spirit and purpose of this most inferesting and helpful 
organization, and also illustrates the practical coopera- 
tion that is given the business world. The services of the 
laboratory are available to the export manufacturer and 
shipper, and the expert knowledge of its staff is brought 
to bear on the special problems, either at no cost or for 
a nominal fee, depending upon the nature of the case. 

The officials of the laboratory urge that information 
be solicited and every effort will be made to give as full 
and complete an answer to the inquiry as possible. The 
results of the laboratory's work are published in the 
form of bulletins issued by the Department of Agricul- 
ture, in the form of articles in the trade press, and there 
is a service of mimeographed reports which are available 
upon request. 

When special cooperative work is undertaken by the 
laboratory there is a charge for the service, the re- 
muneration, however, being reduced to the extent to 
which the work is purely experimental and of value 
chiefly to the laboratory. 

The laboratory is always open to visitors, and those 
whose interest is merely general are shown through the 
various departments and the work carefully explained. 
Those who come to the laboratory for the purpose of 
obtaining specific technical data or to obtain help in the 
solution of some specific problem, are directed to the 
proper office and every eif ort is made to render the serv- 
ice required. Eeports state that it is not uncommon for 
visitors to spend a week or more at the laboratory, study- 
ing data and consulting with different members of the 
staff, and from time to time special one or two-week 
courses are given on subjects within the province of the 
work, for example, on kiln drying, box design, manufac- 
ture and use of plywood, glues, and so forth. 

As time and funds permit the members of the staff 
make special trips, problems are studied at first hand in 
private plants, and demonstrations are made in factories 
of new processes which develop from the research work 
of the laboratory. Likewise the meetings of associations 



180 EXPORT PACKING 

are attended by members of the staff and lectures are 
given, frequently illustrated, on special subjects. 

Examples of Its Work. — In 1917 the Forest Products 
Laboratory was designated by the Ordnance Department 
for the solution of container problems, and there can be 
no doubt that the war was shortened measurably by the 
fact that the laboratory designed containers that made 
possible larger and quicker shipments to the soldiers in 
France. In redesigning a case fitted to carry 140 pounds 
of powder 14 per cent of cargo space was saved; a Gov- 
ernment school for packers was established at the lab- 
oratory, and one of the men designed a box that saved 
the Government $100,000 in freight in six months; an- 
other case for packing soap was re-designed with a 
saving of 43 per cent, and on the first shipment the Gov- 
ernment saved $414,000; a case for carrying two 
Browning guns was re-designed with a saving of 28 per 
cent, and this meant a saving of $5.77 on every two guns 
shipped, and for many months the shipments were 900 
guns a day; a box designed for the regular army rifle 
saved one-third of the former space, which meant 
$1,500,000 on every shipment of a million rifles ; the losses 
suffered by the Government from poor packing were re- 
duced by the Forest Products Laboratory to 15 per cent 
of what they had been before packages perfected in the 
laboratory were used. 

Other Branches of Its Work. — The activities of the 
laboratory, however, are not restricted simply to the 
solution of packing problems, although this is the work 
that chiefly concerns the scope of this book. The lab- 
oratory also devotes itself to any problems related to 
lumbering, physics of timber, mechanics of timber, wood 
preservation, derivative products of wood, wood pa- 
thology and pulp and paper. In this last commodity the 
laboratory has a most interesting field and one that 
affects the public intimately, in view of the decreasing 
supply of pulp timber and the constantly increasing 
scarcity and rapidly mounting cost of paper. There is no 
doubt that sooner or later a way will be found for utiliz- 




Courtesy of Forest Products Laboratory. 

Making a "Compression-on-an-Edge" Test. 

This test consists in standing a box on its edge and applying a gradually 
increasing pressure. 



181 




Courtesy of Forest Products Laboratory. 
Making a ' ' Cornerwise Compression Test. ' ' 

This test consists in a steady and constantly increasing pressure measured 
in pounds, applied to the comer of any package with the opposite corner in a 
direct line with the pressure. 

182 



THE FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY 183 

ing more of the tree in the manufacture of pulp, for in the 
language of the laboratory, "a ton of dry wood yields 
only nine hundred pounds of dry sulphite pulp for paper. 
The rest is lost in the waste sulphite liquor. ' ' 

Solving Business Problems. — And so thousands of 
problems have been submitted to the laboratory by the 
Government and private interests, and thousands of these 
problems have been solved. In its manifold Govern- 
ment work the laboratory not alone found out the most 
suitable' woods for airplane propellers during the late 
war, but also invented a method for perfectly drying the 
wood in from ten to twenty days, something that before 
that time had taken from one to two years. The lab- 
oratory also discovered the method of waterproofing the 
propeller, known as the aluminum leaf method, and the 
experiments on plywood, or veneered wood, carried on at 
the laboratory, saved the Government some $6,000,000 in 
wood costs and prevented countless airplane accidents. 
The inventions of the laboratory in glues alone would 
fully justify its existence if it did not have to its record 
a great number of achievements in many other depart- 
ments, and let us repeat that just as the laboratory 
solved Governmental problems, it stands ready to solve 
the problems of business, whether these problems have 
to do with the preparation of shippings cases or crates or 
with some other work entrusted to the vigilance of this 
most important efficiency organization. Many business 
concerns have made use of the facilities offered, and the 
General Electric Company has smashed thousands of 
electric lamps in testing machines of the laboratory for 
the purpose of designing a suitable container. 

Method of Testing Containers — We show herewith 
a number of illustrations, among them being the so- 
called " hazard' ' machine, which is designed to give a 
box or case as many bumps and jars as it would receive 
on an ordinary thousand-mile journey. It is interesting 
to note that these machines are now being built for 
private plants, the Edison Lamp Works of Harrison, 
N. J., having just installed such a machine at a cost 



184 EXPORT PACKING 

of $2,500. This machine is hexagonal in shape and re- 
volves vertically, the inside of the drum containing ridges 
of wood and metal. Each time the wheel revolves the 
box being tested drops six times, a meter keeping accu- 
rate count of the drops, and the drum revolves so slowly 
that as the cracks open or the wood splits it is easy to 
follow the process. These tests show the defects of the 
particular container and new designs are then placed in 
the drum which are put through the same test, and so the 
story goes. 

Another test that we illustrate is the "Cornerwise 
Compression Test," which consists of standing a box on 
a corner and applying a gradually increasing pressure or 
squeeze. Another test is the " Compression-on-an-edge 
Test," which is the same method as that used in the first 
test, only in this case the edge of the box is submitted to 
the experiment. Of course all of these tests are carefully 
recorded and the data minutely examined. Still another 
test is the "Drop Test," in which a case is repeatedly 
dropped and the results carefully watched. 

We have given a very summary view of what the lab- 
oratory has done and is doing, but it is not possible for 
all of us to go to Madison nor can we take a personal part 
in the experiments. However, the laboratory has antici- 
pated all of this and comes to us in the form of exhaustive 
tabulations of the results of experiments, and practical 
data obtained from them. One of the most interesting 
is a report of the laboratory on "Balanced Packing 
Box Construction. ' ' This we print in full as follows : 

"A properly designed packing box is one which has 
enough strength in each part for the purpose for which it 
is intended, and no more strength in any part than is 
necessary to balance the average strength in every other 
part. The data necessary for designing such a box can- 
not be obtained from observation of boxes in actual com- 
mercial service, because the observer sees the box only 
after it has completely failed. He does not see the be- 
ginning of the failures; and he does not see and conse- 
quently cannot measure the hazard which completes them. 



THE FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY 185 

A failure frequently bears evidence in itself of the cause 
of the damage ; but there is no way of determining from 
a study of the failure the amount of force exerted by the 
damaging cause, and in cases where several causes have 
been active it is impossible to identify each of them. On 
the other hand, laboratory studies (made at the Forest 
Products Laboratory, conducted by the Forest Service 
at Madison, Wis., in cooperation with the University of 
Wisconsin) combine practical experience, which is a 
knowledge of the designs in use, of what lumber is avail- 
able, and of box factory practice, with accurate scientific 
tests made on the package itself, packed as in actual 
service and subjected to strains that appoximate actual 
transportation conditions. 

Tests to Determine Box Design. — "Compression- 
along-an-edge test, as its name implies, is a steady and 
constantly increasing pressure (measured in pounds) ap- 
plied along any edge and with the opposite edge diagon- 
ally through the box in a direct line with the pressure 
exerted. The corner-wise test is applied in the same way 
to any corner of the package with the opposite corner in 
a direct line with the pressure. These two tests measure 
the strength of the box in withstanding any external 
pressure, and to a limited extent approximate the hazard 
of the lower tiers of boxes in a pile. By themselves these 
tests are insufficient to determine comparative weaknesses 
in the various factors that enter into properly balanced 
construction. 

"Another very good test is the drop test, especially 
for comparing the strength of one box with that of an- 
other. In this test the box is packed with the actual con- 
tents as in service and dropped from a predetermined 
height directly on the corner, which is a fall that occurs 
in actual service. The value of the conclusions, in any 
constructive way, is limited, however, because one failure 
runs so rapidly into another that the observer does not 
always get the true measure of the weakness. 

"The most practical method yet devised for testing 
packing boxes is the revolving drum test. The drum is a 



186 EXPORT PACKING 

hexagon-sided machine and revolves slowly. The box 
to be tested is packed with the actual contents, as in com- 
mercial service, and placed in this drum. In the drum 
are arranged a series of hazards, which cause the box to 
follow a regular cycle of drops, falling upon sides, top, 
bottom, ends, edges, corners, and flatwise upon a projec- 
tion similar to the corner of another box. These drops 
simulate the usual hazards of transportation, excepting 
the heavy static pressure received by a box in the lower 
tiers of a pile, which is secured by means of the compres- 
sion-on-edge test described above. 

"As the box moves on from one drop to the next the 
observer notes the beginning of the failure of the weakest 
point in its construction, and follows the development of 
that weakness until the box entirely fails and lets its 
contents out. 

"The weak feature of the box may be too few nails, 
nails of too short a length, nails driven in a crack and 
thus having no great holding power, or some other form 
of nail failure ; and the tests clearly show this weakness. 
The material in the sides, top or bottom may be too thin, 
so that the shocks of the falls pull the wood from the 
nails. The wood may split or break across the grain. 

"Any one of the numerous weaknesses of packing- 
box construction may be developed in this test, until 
finally the observer is able to build up a box that is prac- 
tically equally strong in every feature. Boxes are then 
built, packed, and tested until the presence of this balance 
in design is clearly demonstrated. Such a demonstra- 
tion will show failures ultimately occurring in average 
proportion in nails pulling from the wood, wood pulling 
from the nails, splitting or breaking of ends, sides, tops 
or bottoms, and through the weaknesses of the species 
themselves. 

Conditions Which Affect Box Design.— "Commercial 
conditions and practices in box factories enter into con- 
sideration in designing containers of proper construc- 
tion. Packing boxes are made of low-grade lumber. 
This lumber is low grade because of splits, shakes, knots, 




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187 



TEE FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY 189 

knot holes, dote, or other defects. Such defects as affect 
the proper efficiency of the box must be cut out ; but those 
defects which do not destroy the proper balance of the 
construction should be permitted, so as to keep down the 
cost of manufacture. 

"As lumber is sawn into such thicknesses as bring the 
best market prices for the high grades, the low grades 
must be necessarily of the same thicknesses. The thick- 
nesses specified in the packing box must be obtainable 
from this lumber without undue waste. 

" Certain box factory equipment is standard. This 
should be kept in mind and no construction adopted that 
requires special equipment unless some essential features 
of construction cannot be obtained otherwise. 




Courtesy of Forest Products Laboratory 
Figure 1. Method of measuring size of knot. 

Aids in Box Designing.— "As a result of many box 
tests of all kinds certain aids of somewhat general ap- 
plication in designing packing boxes may be suggested. 
No general rules can be laid down, however, for the rea- 
son that each box must be built with reference not only 
to the external shocks it will have to endure but also to 
the nature of the article it is to contain. Some commodi- 
ties require partitions, trays, diaphragms, and the like. 
Some commodities are affected by heat or cold. Some 
commodities contribute strength to the package; others 
are fragile, so that all the required strength must be in 
the box itself. 

A design which takes into consideration these points 



a 



190 EXPORT PACKING 

and the conditions in the industry as well will result in 
well-balanced construction, and the most practical and 
economical package for the purpose intended ; but lab- 
oratory tests on the box, packed with the commodity 
which it is to hold, are necessary to make certain that all 
the qualities desired are actually present. Each com- 
modity should be studied before a package is constructed 
for it. Nor is the nature of transportation always the 
same. Packages for foreign service are subjected to 
severer hazards than those shipped to domestic markets 
and should be protected accordingly. 

Quality and Condition of Lumber. — " Boxes should be 
manufactured from lumber which is sound (free from 
decay and dote) and well seasoned. The average mois- 
ture content of the wood should be from 12 to 18 per 
cent, based on the weight after oven-drying. 

"The following chart shows the effect on the strength 
of the box caused by the moisture condition of the lum- 
ber and the change of moisture condition in storage. 

MOISTURE CONTENT 

Strength 
Relation 

Per cent 

Nailed and tested at once at 15 per cent moisture. 100 

Nailed and tested at once at 30 per cent moisture 90 

Nailed at 15 per cent, tested at 5 per cent moisture, 4 months' storage . . 75 

Nailed and tested at once at 5 per cent moisture 50 

Nailed at 30 per cent moisture, 

tested at 5 per cent moisture, 

one year in storage 15 

Nailed at 5 per cent moisture, 

tested at 35 per cent moisture, 

stored 2 weeks in exhaust steam , 10 

Nailed at 5 per cent moisture, 

dried at 43^ per cent moisture, 

tested at 35 per cent moisture, 

two weeks in dry storage, 

two weeks in steam 10 

Nailed at 5 per cent moisture, 

steamed at 35 per cent moisture, 
• tested at 4}^ per cent moisture, 
*» two weeks in steam storage, 

two weeks in dry storage 10 

"Lumber should be free from knot holes and loose 
or rotten knots. Knots whose diameter exceeds one- 






THE FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY 191 

third the width of the board, measured as in Figure 1, 
should not be permitted, and no knots should be per- 
mitted which interfere with the proper nailing of the box. 

Weight and Interchangeability of Species.— "The re- 
sults of the drum tests, combined with the data devel- 
oped by thousands of tests oh many species of woods 
under varying conditions of locality, state of dryness of 
the wood, weight, hardness, shock-resisting ability, resist- 
ance to nails, tendency to split, et cetera, as well as by 
tests of the holding power of the various sizes and kinds 
of nails, screws, strapping, and the like, have made it 
possible to group the woods generally used in packing 
boxes into four groups, such that, in a general way, any 
wood in one group substituted for any other wood in the 
same group and built into a box of the same specifications, 
would give practically the same results in commercial 
service. These groups are given in Table 1, which also 
gives the average weight of the various species in pounds 
per square inch surface measure, on various thicknesses 
of box lumber, air dried (an approximate moisture con- 
tent of from 12 to 18 per cent based on the weight of the 
wood after oven drying)." 

Barrels. — In this book the discussion of packing con- 
tainers has been to a considerable extent limited to cases, 
crates and bales, but there has been frequent mention of 
shipments in barrels, and certain commodities, for ex- 
ample, cement, oils, greases and so on, are very generally 
shipped in barrels. Moreover, it will be found that the 
barrel invades many other lines as a container, and this 
fact is brought out in the description of packing of chains 
and other metal goods. The importance of the barrel 
should therefore not be minimized, and we present with 
this chapter five photographs which show that the Forest 
Products Laboratory at Madison, Wisconsin, has not 
been unmindful of this fact. 

The Department of Agriculture's figures on cooper- 
age production, the latest statistics available being those 
for 1918, show some very interesting totals. In this year 
the reported production of tight cooperage stock 



192 



EXPORT PACKING 



TABLE 1— APPROXIMATE AVERAGE WEIGHT OF VARIOUS SPECIES OF WOODS 
USED IN PACKING- BOXES, IN POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH SURFACE MEAS- 
UREMENT FOR USUAL PACKING BOX THICKNESS. SPECIES IN AIR DRIED 
CONDITION, 12% TO 15% MOISTURE CONTENT. 



Species 


Thickness 


%" 


13 /f 6 " 


%» 


%' 


W 


¥%" 


%" 


X" 


Group I 




Pounds per sq. in 


. surface measurement 


i 


White Pine 


.014 
.017 
.014 
.014 
.013 
.015 
.014 
.013 
.015 
.014 
.013 
.017 
.014 
.014 
.018 
.013 
.013 
.016 
-013 
.014 
.017 
.012 
.015 


.013 
.016 
.013 
.013 
.012 
.014 
.013 
.012 
.014 
.013 
.012 
.016 
.013 
.013 
.016 
.012 
.012 
.015 
.012 
.013 
.016 
Oil 
.014 


.012 
.015 
.012 
.012 
.011 
.013 
.012 
.011 
.013 
.012 
Oil 
.015 
.012 
.012 
.015 
.011 
.011 
.013 
.011 
.012 
.015 
.010 
.013 


.0098 

.012 

.0098 

.010 

.0094 

.010 

.010 

.0094 

.011 

.0098 

.0094 

.012 

.010 

.010 

.013 

.0091 

.0094 

.011 

.0091 

.0098 

.012 

.0083 

.010 

4 


.0078 

.0098 

.0078 

.0081 

.0075 

.0084 

.0081 

.0075 

.0087 

.0078 

.0075 

.0098 

.0081 

.0081 

.010 

.0072 

.0075 

.0090 

.0072 

.0078 

.0098 

.0067 

.0084 


.0059 
.0074 
.0059 
.0060 
.0056 
.0063 
.0060 
.0056 
.0065 
.0059 
.0056 
.0074 
.0060 
.0060 
.0076 
.0054 
.0056 
.0067 
.0054 
.0059 
.0074 
.0050 
.0063 


.0049 
.0061 
.0049 
.0050 
.0047 
.0052 
.0050 
.0047 
.0054 
.0049 
.0047 
.0061 
.0050 
.0050 
.0063 
.0045 
.0047 
.0056 
.0045 
.0049 
.0061 
.0041 
.0052 


.0039 
.0049 
.0039 
.0040 
.0038 
.0042 
.0040 
.0038 
.0043 
.0039 
.0038 
.0049 
.0040 
.0040 
.0051 
.0036 
.0038 
.0045 
.0036 
.0039 
.0049 
.0033 
.0042 


Norway Pine 




Spruce 


Western Yellow Pine . . 


Chestnut 






Cypress 


Willow 


Noble Fir 






White Fir 




Redwood 


Butternut 


Cucumber 


Alpine Fir 





Species 



Thickness 



x Vk" 


M" 


H" 


K" 


%" 


%" 



Group II 



Pounds per sq. in. surface measurement 



Southern Yellow Pine 

Hemlock 

Virginia and Carolina 

Pine 

Douglas Fir 

Larch 



020 
015 


.019 
.014 


.017 
-.013 


.015 
.010 


.012 
.0084 


.0087 
.0063 


.0072 
.0052 


020 
017 
019 


.018 
.016 
.017 


.017 
.014 
.016 


.014 
.012 
.013 


.011 

.0096 

.011 


.0085 
.0072 
.008 


.0071 
.0060 
.0067 



Group III 



White Elm 

Red Gum 

Sycamore 

Pumpkin Ash 

Black Ash 

Black Gum 

Tupelo 

Maple, Soft or Silver 



Grocp IV 



Hard Maple 

Beech 

Oak 

Hackberry . . 

Birch 

Rock Elm . . 
White Ash . . 



022 


.020 


.019 


.016 


.013 


.0095 


.0080 


022 


.020 


.019 


.016 


.013 


.0095 


.0080 


023 


.022 


.020 


.017 


.013 


.010 


.0083 


019 


.017 


.016 


.013 


.011 


.008 


.0067 


022 


.020 


.019 


.016 


.012 


.0093 


.0078 


023 


.021 


.020 


.016 


.013 


.0098 


.0081 


019 


.018 


.016 


.014 


.011 


.0082 


.0069 



.0058 
.0042 

.0057 
.0048 
.0054 



017 


.016 


.015 


.012 


.0098 


.0074 


.0061 


018 


.016 


.015 


.013 


.010 


.0076 


.0063 


018 


.016 


.015 


.013 


.010 


.0076 


.0063 


019 


.017 


.016 


.013 


.011 


.0080 


.0067 


018 


.017 


.016 


.013 


.010 


.0078 


.0065 


018 


.017 


.016 


.013 


.010 


.0078 


.0065 


019 


.017 


.016 


.013 


.011 


.0080 


.0067 


017 


.016 


.015 


.012 


.0098 


.0074 


.0061 



.0049 
.0051 
.0051 
.0053 
.0052 
.0052 
.0053 
.0049 



.0064 
.0064 
.0067 
.0053 
.0062 
.0065 
.0055 



TEE FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY 193 

amounted to 286,401,000 staves and 20,711,271 sets of 
heading. The output of staves was 24 per cent smaller, 
than in 1909 and 20 per cent smaller than in 1911, while 
the manufacture of heading was less than 1 per cent 
under that of 1909 and 32 per cent under 1911. For 
staves the slack cooperage production for 1918 was 50 
per cent under 1909 and 24 per cent under 1911, and the. 
heading production showed a decline of 57 per cent and 
43 per cent as compared with 1909 and 1911 respectively. 

From these figures it is evident that important 
changes have taken place in the cooperage industry 
during the past ten years. Demand for certain types 
of barrels has fluctuated with the popularity of various 
styles of containers, while the increasing use of con- 
tainers made of other materials has had a marked effect 
on the production of cooperage stock. This is equally 
true whether we consider tight or slack cooperage. The 
use of the latter style of barrel has been greatly modi- 
fied by the increasing use of sacks as well as that of the 
veneer barrel or drum. However, the increased use of 
barrels for packing lime and cement, as well as farm 
produce, has done much to maintain the cooperage indus- 
try at a fairly high productive level. The prohibition 
movement has also greatly affected the demand for tight 
cooperage, and while millions of beer and ale staves were 
produced in former years, in 1918 the production was 
measured by a few hundred thousands. 

Mr. Hu Maxwell writes interestingly in American 
Forestry on the subject of cooperage, in part, as follows : 

Kinds of Cooperage.— "There are two kinds of coop- 
erage, commonly distinguished as ' tight' and 'slack.' 
Tight vessels are intended for liquids ; slack for dry ar- 
ticles. Classes and grades come between the two ex- 
tremes. The barrel that carries alcoholic liquors is con- 
sidered the highest class of tight cooperage, while the 
vegetable barrel is typical of slack containers. The 
slack barrel end of the business is the larger, judged 
by the quantity of wood required in manufacturing the 
product; but tight barrels demand a much higher grade 



194 EXPORT PACKING 

of wood. The value of the slack stock used in the country 
i& nearly 50 per cent more than the value of the tight 
material. Nearly any wood is suitable for*some kind of 
slack cooperage, but only a few are serviceable for tight. 

Woods Used. — "Room exists for considerable choice 
of wood for staves in slack cooperage, but not so much 
for containers of liquids. Flour barrels were once made 
principally of cottonwood staves, but elm has proved to 
be a good substitute. A white wood that represents a 
clean appearance is wanted, and it must be tough enough 
and strong enough to carry the load. It must be free 
from odor or taste that might injure the contents. The 
sugar barrel demands material of the same kind. 

"Red gum leads all other woods because it is abun- 
dant and satisfactory. The shippers of butter, lard, 
meat and other food products select the most suitable 
woods for their barrels. Custom has much to do with it, 
but not all ; for it is easy to understand that a pine barrel 
might taint food with the taste of turpentine. The hard- 
woods are demanded in three times the number for slack 
barrels as are the soft-woods ; yet many commodities go 
to market in soft-wood barrels and kegs. Scrub pine is 
used for nail kegs and for containers of other small hard- 
ware. 

Wide Use of Cooperage Stock. — "Extensive use is 
made of barrels and kegs as shipping containers, and in 
some places they compete with boxes, while in others 
they hold the field to themselves. The life of a barrel is 
put down at one year by the trade, but that is not enough. 
A majority of barrels are used many times. They begin 
as sugar or flour barrels, and are then sold to the farmer 
for shipping his produce to market. It may be said that 
they are returned to him several times, carrying potatoes 
to the market on the first trip, and tobacco or lettuce on 
the next; each cargo being lighter in weight than the 
previous one, owing to the weakened condition of the 
barrel. Finally the barrel may serve out its life work as 
a trash receptacle, and in the end can be used for fuel. 
Thus it may be said that a barrel fills as useful a career 




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Courtesy of Forest Products Laboratory. 
Small Hazard Machine. 

Employed in testing boxes up to 2k" w* their greatest dimensions. Machine 
revolves vertically. Inside of drum contains ridges of wood and metal. With 
each revolution the box tested drops six times. 




HUH 

Courtesy of Forest Products Laboratory, 
Internal Pressure Test for Barrels. 

Barrel and connecting pipes filled with water to exclude all air. Pressure is 
then progressively raised until 1 lb. of water escapes from barrel in one minute. 

196 



TEE FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY 197 

as almost any other manufactured article, and its life is 
much longer than a season. 

"The demand for barrels is constantly growing, be- 
cause modern machinery has made it possible to make 
them for the trade cheaper than almost any other form 
of durable package. That it is the most convenient form 
of package has long been acknowledged. 

"The heaviest demand comes from the cement busi- 
ness, and flour ranks next, closely followed by sugar and 
salt. As containers for fence staples, bolts, nuts, nails, 
and packages for roasted coffee, spices, crockery, fruits, 
and vegetables, they follow in the order named. Glass 
manufacturers, baking powder companies, liquor distil- 
lers, and candy, tobacco, and cheese packers are big users 
of barrels. The demand for barrels for molasses, oil, 
lard and pork is also enormous, while dry paint, glue, 
snuff, oatmeal, screws, castings and general hardware 
articles annually increase the demand on the cooperage 
supply. 

Characteristics of Woods. — "Some woods are water- 
proof, others are not. Alcoholic liquors and some oils 
will pass through the pores of some woods where water 
will not go. The wood of which a whiskey barrel is made 
may absorb a gallon of whiskey without any passing 
through the staves and escaping. Some woods are so 
porous that barrels made of them will not hold water 
very long. Coopers learned by experience that certain 
kinds of wood made better staves than others, when the 
barrels were intended for liquid. It was wholly a matter 
of experience at first, but later the microscope helped to 
explain why some are proof against seepage and others 
are not. All wood is more or less porous. It is made 
up of hollow cells, connected one with another by small 
openings, all microscopic in size ; but some of the hard- 
woods have openings much larger than cells. They are 
tubes running through the wood, up and down the trunk 
of the tree, and are called pores or vessels. Some of 
them, as in oak and ash, are large enough to be seen by 
the unaided eye, by inspecting the end of a freshly cut 



198 EXPORT PACKING 

stick. These pores are responsible for the fact that some 
barrels will not hold liquid. It seeps into the pores and 
flows along them until it passes entirely through the 
staves and escapes. That is why wood with large open 
pores is not suitable for tight barrels. 




3 



Courtesy of American Forestry. 
Photograph shows tyloses in process of plugging white oak pores. 

" White oak has always been considered the best tight 
cooperage wood. Many years ago it was thought that no 
other could or should be used for certain liquid com- 
modities, but others have lately come into use. Yet, 
white oak has large pores, and a casual observer noting 
that characteristic would conclude that it is not good for 
tight barrels, but experience shows it to be good. Though 
it has large pores, which may be easily seen, they are 
not open. They are closed as a bottle is closed with a 
cork, and liquid cannot enter. The plugging substance, 
which is known as tyloses, is of a whitish color and is 
deposited in the pores by the wood itself, in the progress 
of the tree's growth and maturity. It occurs principally 
after the sapwood has changed into heartwood. Red 



THE FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY 199 

oak's pores are not plugged. Therefore red oak is not 
suitable for the best kind of tight cooperage. The condi- 
tion of the pores, whether they are plugged or not, ex- 
plains why fewer woods are available for tight than for 
slack cooperage. Only the best wood is used as barrels 
for alcoholic liquors; but some other woods will do for 
other kinds of liquors, such as brine for pork, vinegar for 
pickles, and for certain oils." 

Descriptive of the tests on barrels made by the Forest 
Products Laboratory we show herewith five cuts, the first 
illustrating the side-compression test. In this test the 
barrel was placed between two flat surfaces and com- 
pressed in the direction of its diameter. The rate of 
compression was 0.25 inch per minute and simultaneous 
readings of load, compression and loss of water from the 
barrel were taken. The test was discontinued when one- 
half the water had escaped. 

The second test is known as the diagonal-compression 
test, the barrel being compressed between two flat sur- 
faces and supported on one edge or chime and loaded 
on the other. The rate of compression in this case was 
the same as in test number one. The side-drop test is 
shown in plate three, in this case the barrel being- 
dropped on a wooden platform about 3% inches thick 
which was covered with a steel plate % inch thick, the 
platform resting on the concrete floor of the laboratory. 
The first drop was three inches, the next six, and so on, 
the length of drop being increased three inches each time. 
The test was continued until one-half the contents of 
the barrel had escaped. 

The diagonal-drop test, shown in plate four, is the 
same as the side-drop except that the barrel is dropped 
on the edge. In the internal pressure test, plate five, 
the barrel and connecting pipes were filled with water 
in such a way as to exclude all air as far as possible. 
The pressure was then raised to two pounds per square 
inch and held for two minutes. The pressure was then 
raised to four pounds and held for two minutes. The 
process was continued, increasing the pressure two 



200 EXPORT PACKING 

pounds each time and holding it constant for two minutes, 
until one pound of water rah from the barrel in one min- 
ute or less. "With the data of these tests as a guide the 
laboratory was able to suggest some very valuable im- 
provements in the barrels experimented with. 

This chapter should be read in connection with other 
chapters of this book, which mention and discuss barrel 
containers. In the chapter on cement will be found inter- 
esting data and photographs. 



CHAPTER VIII 

CLIMATE AND PORT FACILITIES AFFECTING 
MANNER OF PACKING 

PROVIDING for transhipment is not alone a ques- 
tion of export packing sufficiently good to stand 
being taken from the ship's hold and dropped into 
a lighter, frequently under very severe conditions; it 
may involve much more than that. For example, after 
the package is taken from the ship it may be necessary 
to tranship it by cart, burro, llama, bullock, camel, man, 
or in some other way. Therefore it is not alone a ques- 
tion of packing goods well, it is also a question of packing 
them to meet these special conditions. Generally it may 
be said that a mule can carry from 200 to 250 pounds, 
a burro from 150 to 200, a llama about 100, and a camel 
from 350 to 450. In making up packages for transporta- 
tion by any of these beasts, however, the package should 
be only one-half of the indicated weight. Transportation 
by animals generally takes place by strapping a pack- 
age on each side of the beast, so as to balance the load. 
Thus the mule would carry two packages of 100 pounds 
each, the burro two of 75 to 100, and so on. With refer- 
ence to human transportation the weight that can be 
carried varies greatly. Any one who has seen the Mex- 
ican peon, a Peruvian Indian, or a, Turkish hammal 
(porter) trotting along under huge burdens would be 
inclined to conclude that there was almost an unlimited 
capacity. But it may be stated that the general average 
load for a man is from 100 to 150 pounds. 

Climatic Conditions as Affecting Packing. — Climatic 
conditions have a very important influence on the char- 
acter of the package, and this offers another opportunity 
to insist on a little preliminary study of geography. 
This statement applies no matter what the direction of 

201 



202 EXPORT PACKING 

the compass. For example, a shipment may be going to 
Nova Scotia and the manufacturer may think that his 
usual Canadian packing will suffice, but he overlooks the 
fact that the climate of Nova Scotia is very damp and 
that his metal goods should be much more carefully pro- 
tected than is the case for shipments to more usual 
Canadian points. Moving to another part of the world, 
to Honduras for example, we find that the rainy season 
lasts for from five to six months, and the rainy season 
there is no mere figure of speech as it is in many cases. 
In Honduras goods must be carefully packed for pro- 
tection against moisture if the shipment is to arrive in 
good shape. Shipments for Salvador or Peru which are 
transhipped into lighters are exposed to sea water, 
while exposure to torrential rains is characteristic not 
alone of shipments to Colombia and many parts of South 
America, but also to many other sections of the world. 
Another peril goods have to face is intense heat. It 
frequently happens that goods are stowed near the 
boilers of ships or that they are subject to intense trop- 
ical heat, as in Colombia or India. Moreover, in many 
countries the air is heavily charged with humidity, to 
such an extent that fungoid growths are produced fre- 
quently destroying or rendering useless many valuable 
shipments. It may be that the foreign buyer is unreason- 
able in expecting the exporter to know all about these 
many different conditions, and not, alone to know about 
them but to guard against them by packing that protects 
the goods. But, be this as it may, there are some export- 
ing houses that are acquainted with the conditions and 
that take proper precautions to protect their shipments, 
and these are the houses that eventually get the business. 
What They Do in the Ports. — Another important point 
to be considered is the port conditions. Because we have 
ideal port conditions in New York and in many of the 
other shipping centers of the United States, it does not 
follow that there is anything similar in other countries. 
To be sure, there are countries where port conditions 
are superior even to those of the United States, but none 



CLIMATE AND PORT FACILITIES 203 

the less there are vast sections of the world where port 
facilities are practically unknown, and this is true par- 
ticularly of many parts of South America. Later in this 
chapter there will be quoted a description of tranship- 
ment at a South American West Coast port. 

Foreign Transportation and Its Difficulties.— Goods 
may be carried for many days in ox carts, as is the case 
in Honduras. Goods sent by parcel post, packed by the 
Post Office in bags or cases, are tossed from a wagon to 
a wharf, from wharf to the hold of the ship with other 
packages of various descriptions on top as a rule, and 
when taken from the ship they are dropped into a lighter 
and again and again go through the same process, each 
time receiving shocks of various kinds. Or it may be, as 
in Colombia, that the lighter packages are usually se- 
lected by the porters and muleteers, and the heavy boxes 
left until such time as conditions admit of their transpor- 
tation. But this time may be many weeks, even months, 
after the arrival of the goods, and many things may 
happen during these weeks and months. 

Where. Conditions Are Trying. — The two principal 
conditions existing in foreign markets which require the 
attention and consideration of American shippers in pre- 
paring their packages for export, are climatic conditions 
as existing in the tropical countries, of which India may 
be taken as one of the most striking illustrations, and 
the primitive development, even the total lack, of harbor 
and port facilities which many ports in Central and 
South America may best illustrate. Many Americans 
who have not traveled widely over the world have not 
the faintest conception of what a really tropical climate 
means with its excessive humidity, its rainy and its dry 
seasons, the danger of ravages by insects, etc. Similarly, 
few people who have not seen for themselves or studied 
in books or photographs the conditions under which 
goods are landed in some of the Latin- American ports, 
can begin to understand what it is like for a steamer to 
anchor from two to four miles off shore and tranship 
its cargo into lighters bobbing up and down in a heavy 



204 EXPORT PACKING 

swell ; even landing their passengers in lighters or tend- 
ers, to which they have to be transferred from the steamer 
in baskets lowered by derricks, because of the impossi- 
bility of climbing up and down a ship 's ladder in a heavy 
sea. There is not space in these pages for detailed 
descriptions of the climate of all countries of the world, 
nor of the facilities existing in the hundreds of seaports 
of the world. Certain vivid illustrations may be here 
printed which will suffice to convey a more or less ade- 
quate impression of actual conditions such as those just 
referred to. 

What a Tropical Climate Means 

India offers us a classic example of conditions in a 
tropical country, and while a number of the cities of 
British India have magnificent docks, none the less the 
packing problem for goods shipped to India is a very 
serious one. First, we have conditions of interior trans- 
portation which, in a large part of the country, are primi- 
tive to a degree, and added to this are transhipments 
which goods sent out from the United States must some- 
times suffer. However, the chief hazard is climatic, and 
this hazard begins to operate long before the goods reach 
India, when, for example, they pass through the Suez 
Canal and begin their journey through the Red Sea. 
The terrific heat here makes itself felt, the iron sides of 
the ship becoming so hot that one cannot touch the plates 
with one's hands in comfort, and hazards increase the 
nearer the goods are brought to India. A writer in the 
Indian Textile Journal, of Bombay, has this to say of 
the climatic situation, his remarks applying in general 
terms to any other tropical, damp climate : 

Rainfall. — ' ' The rainfall in India, which all takes place 
within four to five months, contributes largely in giving 
to the climate its peculiar character. Averages at various 
cities follow: Bombay 72.25 inches, Karachi 7.34 inches, 
Hyderabad (Sind) 8 inches, Nagpore 45.09 inches, Alla- 
habad 38.51 inches. 




Transportation in Turkey. 
Eight men are shown carrying a hogshead in Constantinople. 




Courtesy of The Americas. 

MOLLENDO, A TYPICAL PORT OF THE SOUTH AMERICAN WEST COAST. 
Goods are landed into lighters in the open water of the Pacific. 

205 




Courtesy of The Americas. 
Unloading Freight at Arica. 

Photograph shows knocked down motor trucks being lowered into a lighter 
over the side of a ship. 

206 



CLIMATE AND PORT FACILITIES 207 

"The effect of heavy and continuous rain in the trop- 
ics is to produce a dampness in the air quite unknown in 
Europe, and which is very destructive to many articles 
of European manufacture. The moisture and heat com- 
bined set up all kinds of fungoid growth and decay in 
goods which are quite unaffected by the climatic condi- 
tions of Europe. Mildew attacks textile, goods, leather, 
books and stationery; arms, cutlery and metal work 
require constant supervision to preserve them. Euro- 
pean furniture of wood is soon spoiled by swelling and 
shrinkage, or by borer worms ; and liquors, excepting the 
strong alcoholic ones, rapidly deteriorate in the heat of 
India. Perishable goods soldered up in tin lined cases 
are not safe if they have been packed in Europe in wet 
weather. The heat of the ship's hold in the Bed Sea, or 
that of a closed iron wagon on the Indian railways, when 
the iron may acquire a temperature of 160 degrees in the 
sun, will start mildew in the case by the aid of the 
moisture within it. Straw and shaving packings hold a 
good deal of moisture in damp weather, and do much 
mischief when sent to the tropics. No merchandise, 
therefore, that is liable to injury from heat or moisture 
can be stored long in India without serious deterioration. 

Books in India. — ' * Books if bound with ordinary paste 
are quickly attacked by mildew and by vermin. Beetles 
will eat off the surface finish from stamped cloth covers. 
The paste should be mixed with corrosive sublimate or 
other antiseptic. Books on shelves, unless packed tight, 
are all hanging by the binding, and a warm, damp atmos- 
phere loosens them from the covers if they are large. 
All large books for use in the tropics should be bound so 
that when placed upright on a shelf the leaves would 
rest on the shelf, that is to say, the covers should be cut 
flush with the leaves on the under side. The appearance 
of such a volume might provoke criticism, but it would 
never lose its cover in the manner described. Books 
sewed with wire go speedily to pieces in the tropics. 
Since wire sewing has been introduced, a very foolish 
economy has substituted tinned iron wire for tinned 



208 EXPORT PACKING 

copper. The tinning soon disappears from the iron and 
the book soon falls to pieces. 

Oils and Drugs in India. — "Barrels containing oil are 
very quickly affected by a hot and dry atmosphere. The 
moisture from the wood is evaporated more quickly than 
the oil can replace it and leakage begins unless the hoops 
are set up. Oil, therefore, can be safely stored only in 
iron tanks. Drug compounds and proprietary medicines 
are also specially affected in the tropics. Pills lose in 
time their capacity to dissolve, and gum capsules, by 
oxidation, become practically waterproof in spite of 
every possible care having been taken of them. 

Manufactures of Steel in the Tropics.— ' ' Steel or iron 
instruments or weapons meant for use in the tropics 
should be kept in cases without any linings. Velvet, silk, 
plush, cloth or leather linings all absorb moisture and 
cause the instrument to rust. Nothing will keep them 
so well as linings of baywood or other absorbent timber 
which has been well painted, while hot, with a melted 
paraffin wax. No wax need remain on the surface, but 
if the pores are properly filled the trouble and loss due 
to rusting of valuable instruments or weapons may be 
avoided. During the monsoon rains all wooden cases 
containing merchandise for transport must be covered 
with pack sheeting and tarred unless they are tin lined. 

Drying Merchandise in India. — "The process of dry- 
ing merchandise, whether it be textile goods or other 
materials, demands special arrangements during the 
rains that may fall for weeks together with very little 
intermission, and the storage of dried and other goods, 
such as tobacco or provisions, has still to be provided for. 
It may not improbably be found in connection with the 
ice factories that are becoming common in India, and 
which, by means of suitable extension, might provide 
cool storage, as is already done in New York. A sufficient 
reduction of temperature stops the action of moisture 
even on the most perishable goods. This may be ob- 
served in the case of fish and meat, which in Bombay are 
tainted in a few hours after death. In cold weather in 



CLIMATE AND PORT FACILITIES 209 

Europe they will keep for several days, and if well frozen 
they may be preserved indefinitely. 

Absorbents and Repellents Required in India. — "Much 
has already been done for the preservation of perishable 
goods on a small scale, and the use of absorbents in air 
tight cases is a great aid in the preservation of samples 
used in commerce. Lime, chloride of calcium, salt, dried 
sawdust, and sulphuric acid have their uses as absorbents 
of moisture, and should all be known and understood in 
a well arranged sample room. 

"Glass showcases should have a floor as well as top 
and sides of glass, for a wooden floor, being permeable 
to moisture, will absorb water vapor from the air and 
transmit it to the atmosphere of the case. There is thus 
a flow of moisture through the wood which must either 
be taken up by absorbents or left to deteriorate the con- 
tents of the case. No showcase is absolutely tight, unless 
it be a bottle with the stopper cemented in place.^ There 
is therefore a circulation of air in and out, which is con- 
trolled by and due to the fluctuation of barometric 
pressure twice in every 24 hours. Every closed vessel 
breathes twice a day, the inflow carrying with it dust and 
moisture. The dust settles in the still air of the case and 
the moisture is taken up, partly by the absorbent and 
partly by the articles within. It is this fluctuation of 
air pressure that gives movement to the aneroid 
barometer. Camphor has for a long time been used to 
repel the attacks of vermin upon furs and textile fabrics, 
but it is now being abandoned in favor of naphthalene and 
benzine, whose odor is particularly repugnant to insects 
of all kinds. Kerosene is also much disliked by them, but 
being much less volatile its use is limited. Ants will not 
crawl up the leg of a table or bed around which a rag 
dipped in kerosene has been tied, and suspended meat 
safes may be protected in the same way, with a rag tied 
around the suspending cord. 

Advantage Taken of Dry Season in India. — "Machin- 
ery, especially that for textile factories, is imported 
during the dry season. If it has to be conveyed far from 



/ 



210 EXPORT PACKING 

the port of discharge, the makers should be carefully 
informed regarding the kind of land carriage that will 
be employed to deliver it. If there is much transport by 
road, as may easily happen, the quality of the road, the 
inclines, bridges, and fords should all be carefully exam- 
ined and reported on, as it might be necessary to restrict 
the maximum weight of the heaviest article to meet the 
peculiarities of transport." 

Displaying Hardware in India. — Shopkeepers in India 
have difficulty in making their show windows and even 
their counter showcases attractive, when they wish to 
display bright steel goods, especially cutlery. If a pocket 
knife, for example, is displayed in a show window for a 
single day or two it promptly rusts and becomes unsale- 
able and unuseable. Accordingly, the spectacle is com- 
mon, but by no means attractive, of a handsome display 
of cutlery and other bright steel goods in hardware show 
windows all thickly coated with vaseline. 

How Indian Druggists Keep Rubber Goods. — The only 
way that retail drug shops in India can satisfactorily 
carry in stock the necessary supplies of rubber sundries, 
syringes, ice bags, hot water bags, etc., is by keeping their 
reserve supplies in their cellars, under water. If kept 
on the shelves in the way in which American druggists 
carry such stocks these rubber goods would spoil in a 
week or two at the outside. 

Packing Dry Products and Chemicals for the Tropics. 
— The Indian agents of a large British firm wrote 
recently in the following terms regarding packing for 
India : "The packing that will do for temperate climates, 
or even some other tropical countries, is in many cases 
absolutely unsuitable for India. Take, for instance, such 
things as dry products in the shape of milk foods, etc., 
and powdered forms of chemicals. It is absolutely essen- 
tial in most cases that these shall be packed in glass con- 
tainers, otherwise the humidity of the climate causes 
metal packings to sweat and the contents to become 
spoiled. In such matters, also, as the packing of heavy 
chemicals for the milling industries — nitric, sulphuric, 



CLIMATE AND PORT FACILITIES 211 

and other acids — the packing preferred for these, instead 
of being carboys, is 28-pound earthenware jars, packed 
two in a case, the cases being very strong to prevent 
breakage. In all instances hooped packing cases should 
be used, as the goods are subject to very rough handling 
by the native labor at the docks and railways. ' ' 

Packing for Burma. — Burma and in fact all terri- 
tories in this part of the world are very like India so far 
as climate is concerned, but it should be especially noted, 
in addition to packing for climatic conditions, that away 
from the main river and railway transportation system 
these countries are dependent on bullock carts traveling 
on soft bottom roads which are only tracks. It is always 
to be remembered that native Indian labor is far from 
intelligent and is taught and educated with some difficulty. 

The West Coast of South America. — A large exporter 
of rubber goods has, in the following letter to the author, 
given a very good idea of conditions existing along the 
West Coast of South America which, in a general way, 
may be taken as further typical of conditions at many 
other ports, especially those of Central America and the 
west coast of Mexico: 

"To appreciate fully the need for greater care and 
more efficient packing one should really take a trip down 
the West Coast of South- America as far as Mollendo, 
Peru, and then journey inland as far as Cuzco, or up 
over the mountain passes to Cerro de Pasco and 
Huanuco. 

Unloading Cargo. — "In most instances all freight for 
the West Coast of South America must be unloaded from 
the steamer into a launch or lighter in the open bay or 
roadstead, and then to the dock or pier, while the lighter 
is often tossed about on the breakers. These lighters or 
barges come out from shore on the arrival of a steamer, 
fasten to her with a bow and stern line, then swing clear, 
as the ocean swell keeps both barge and steamer moving 
and their up-and-down motion is by no means coincident. 
A sling full of merchandise consisting, say, of a box, a 
barrel, and a crate, weighing perhaps 1,500 pounds, is 



212 EXPORT PACKING 

swung over the ship's side and lowered to within 15 or 
20 feet of the water. When the barge comes beneath the 
swinging sling down goes the merchandise with a rush 
to catch the barge. The package on the bottom receives 
the full force of the impact. 

"In many ports on this coast there is further rough 
handling after the goods are landed. There are few 
trucks in the warehouses, and much of the merchandise 
is transported on the shoulders of men, who, instead of 
lowering their burden easily or having someone help 
them, simply stand erect and let the cases fall. More- 
over, warehouse accommodations may not be sufficient 
for all goods landed. In such instances the shipments 
are liable to damage by exposure to the elements. 

Interior Transport in Peru.— "Another fact usually 
lost sight or by the exporter, is that after arrival at the 
port of destination a considerable amount of the ship-- 
ment has, in all probability, to be transported inland over 
devious mountain trails or through jungle paths before 
it reaches its final destination. 

"Take, for example, goods that are consigned t ( o 
Tarma, Huanuco or Mayobamba in the interior of Peru. 
As vehicular traffic, owing to the narrow roads and 
mountain passes, is impossible, all inland transportation 
is effected by burro or mule trains. The muleteers and 
cargo dories are no respecters of merchandise and in 
consequence it is no uncommon sight to see the trails 
strewn with goods. In many places the old Inca trails 
are so narrow in the mountainous regions that two burro 
trains cannot pass one another without one string of 
donkeys being faced to the inside wall of the trail while 
the others pass by, picking their way carefully along the 
edges of the precipice which frequently has a sheer drop 
of several hundreds of feet. 

"As another example of the necessity for strong and 
proper packing, let us follow the routine of one of our 
shipments to our branch at Santiago, Chile. This is what 
takes place after the ship has anchored at its destination 
and starts discharging cargo. 




Llama Pack Train in Peru. 
Method of transporting goods in the interior of Peru. 




Courtesy of The Americas. 
Unloading Flour from a Lighter. 
Typical West Coast method of unloading flour and other goods. 

213 




Courtesy of The Americas. 
Unloading of Auto Trucks. 
Note the condition of the case being lowered, due to bad packing. 




Courtesy of The Americas. 
Badly Packed Agricultural Implements. 
Shows damaged condition of case when it arrived in Chile. 

214 



CLIMATE AND PORT FACILITIES 215 

Follow This Shipment to Chile.— " In many cases the 
packages are unloaded from between decks, being drawn 
to the hold by the sling, from there lifted over the side 
to be dropped into lighters which sometimes have a per- 
pendicular movement of 15 feet. In no case is any care 
used by the officer in charge of the unloading to see that 
the packages land in the lighter as they should. As 
many of the lighters are two or three hundred tons, it is 
necessary to pack case on case, sometimes as many as 
six or eight layers of cases of different sizes and con- 
struction. The lighters are then moved to the dock where 
the packages are unloaded by slings and again receive 
rough treatment in dropping onto the dock. From the 
dock to the custom house car the packages are handled 
by slings and, as the cars are very small they are loaded 
with from two to five layers of cases. The car is moved to 
the warehouse of the custom house and cases dropped to 
the cement floors. After documents are presented for 
dispatch, packages are again loaded onto the same style 
of car in the same manner and taken to the Eevision 
Department of the custom house and again dropped to 
the floor. After revision they are again loaded onto the 
car and taken to the street, where another unloading 
operation is performed. From the street the packages 
are loaded to the dray which takes them to the railroad 
station, where they are dumped on the platform. From 
the platform another handling is made to the car. Arriv- 
ing at destination, it is customary to load the drays sev- 
eral layers deep, and arriving at the branch the packages 
are unloaded in the street. The packages from the higher 
layers are, in most cases, dropped to the street which is 
granite paved. From the street they are rolled into the 
branch. The warehouse being in the cellar of the build- 
ing, it is necessary to lower these packages by sling to 
the floor of the warehouse. 

"All these conditions must be taken into account by 
us if we desire our goods to reach their destination intact 
and our customers to be satisfied. Ignorance of the treat- 
ment his goods will receive during transportation to con- 



216 EXPORT PACKING 

sumer excuses no exporter; instead, it creates an unfavor- 
able opinion not only of the individual shipper but of all 
American exporters.' ' 

Heavy Weights to be Avoided. — A British govern- 
ment report recently commented at length on ways in 
which merchandise of many different descriptions ought 
to be packed, calling especial attention to the recommen- 
dations of importers in Valparaiso, Chile, to the desira- 
bility of limiting the weight of single packages to about 
500 pounds gross because of the fact that in Chile the 
work of stowing in custom house sheds and delivery to 
consignee is all performed by manual labor. Importers in 
Colombia urge that bales and cases should, if possible, 
not exceed 90 kilos in weight, while on the other hand it 
is advisable that they do not weigh less than 70 kilos 

Interior Transportation by Muleback.— The well 
known mule has frequently to be utilized for the trans- 
portation of freight to the interior of many Central and 
South American republics, both because of the absence 
of wagon roads and because of the perilous nature of 
many of the trails over the mountain passes where the 
sure-footed, if obstinate, mule possesses many advan- 
tages as a carrier. However, it is highly probable that 
the extent of the requirement for special packing suitable 
for muleback transportation has always been much 
exaggerated. In all countries where an animal 's back 
has to be utilized for carrying freight, the amount of 
merchandise thus to be transported, almost always to 
remote and thinly populated and less favored districts, 
is comparatively small; the great bulk of the imports of 
the country in question being not only received but con- 
sumed in the port cities or the more important places, 
which, because of their size and demands, have been 
closely linked with the ports by railways, river steamers 
or adequate highways. None the less, there remains that 
part of the import trade of a given country which has to 
be transported into the interior by pack trains for which 
careful and special packing must be provided. Take, for 
example, and by way of illustrating very similar condi- 




CLIMATE AND PORT FACILITIES 217 

tions in other countries, the following description of in- 
terior transportation in Honduras, which appears in 
Central America as an Export Field, by Mr. Garrard 
Harris : 

Trying Conditions in Honduras. — "Pack train service 
extends over practically all of Honduras, perhaps half 
the population or more being dependent on pack trains 
for goods from the outside world. But it does not follow 
from this that half the imports and exports of the country 
are handled by pack trains, for the people in the interior 
towns and villages depend to a large extent on native 
produce, and aside from cloths, various kinds of clothing, 
and some flour, little is transported regularly by pack 
train. However, such unexpected articles as soda foun- 
tains are to be found in some places in the interior, the 
drums of carbonated water being carried for over 100 
miles, and several gold mines have brought heavy ma- 
chinery at enormous expense 200 miles into the interior. 

"Most interior towns are supplied by pack service 
from the Pacific side of the country, the goods being 
landed at Amapala, lightered to San Lorenzo, and trans- 
ported for the most part in ox carts over the cart road to 
Tegucigalpa, and from there to the interior towns by 
pack mules. 

Weights for Mule Loads. — "The pack trains from 
Masica, Ceiba and Trujillo must cross the very abrupt 
and very moist coast range of mountains; consequently 
the average load is not as large as in other parts of the 
country. 

"The average load for a pack mule in the Ceiba dis- 
trict is approximately 8 "arrobas." An arroba is sup- 
posed to weigh 24 pounds and so 200 pounds can be con- 
sidered the load for one mule. In other parts of the 
country where the trails are a little better and the grades 
lighter the average load is 250 pounds, or approximately 
10 arrobas. 

"An important fact to be borne in mind is that the 
loads referred to above are mule loads, and that goods 
must be packed in units having just half the mule load 



218 EXPORT PACKING 

weight, for it is necessary that the load be evenly divided 
in separate packages across the animal's back. Pack- 
ages should not be over 3 feet in length or over 14 inches 
in any other direction ; and those packages, such as bales 
of cloths,' that do not present a square edge are better 
for packing, although the square edged packages are not 
hard to handle. 

Desirable Packing for Honduras. — ' ' Flour is generally 
shipped in 12%-pound sacks, which in turn are packed 
by the muleteers in gunny sacks and covered with water- 
proof covering. It often happens that the flour arrives 
in the interior in a damp condition, and if it could be 
shipped without great extra expense in hermetically 
sealed tins its arrival at destination in better condition 
would be insured. All packages should be covered with 
a heavy paper inside the outer covering, and if possible 
this should be a waterproof material, such as paraffin 
paper. 

' ' Small machinery, such as sewing machines, should be 
shipped knocked down and crated with special reference 
to the balancing of weights referred to. Pipes, rails, etc., 
should be cut to 3-foot lengths." 



CHAPTER IX 
PILFERING 

ACCORDING to the statistics of the United States 
Railroad Administration, the railroads of the 
United States lost $45,000,000 in 1919 from pilfer- 
age. Other statistics tell us that the marine underwriting 
companies of New York City alone were called upon to 
pay in 1919 more than $3,000,000 in losses due to the same 
factor. It is true that this book does not concern itself 
with domestic conditions, but the two losses mentioned 
are due principally to the same cause, that is, poor pack- 
ing. Mr. Robert L. Calkins, freight claim agent of the 
New York Central lines, states that the ' ' New York Cen- 
tral lines are paying out over a half million dollars 
monthly in freight claims, the result of thefts and break- 
age of shipping cases. This means approximately $6,- 
000,000 a year, and it is fast developing into a very 
serious situation for the railroads of the country. These 
losses are increasing instead of diminishing. . . . 
While measures have been adopted with a view of cur- 
tailing these huge losses, the wholesale thefts go on just 
the same and the companies seem powerless to check 
them. On the New York Central lines alone there are 
over 400 detectives at work on this matter, yet the claims 
for losses continue to pour in. . . . Pilferage consti- 
tutes nearly 60 per cent of our losses.' ' 

On the export side, a prominent marine insurance 
house stated a few days ago that theft and pilferage of 
American goods in transit to foreign ports have reached 
a degree of magnitude which is not only alarming for 
writers of marine insurance, but promises, if continued, 
to be a menace to foreign trade. Some marine insurance 
companies are refusing to grant policies against this type 
of loss except in a very limited number of cases, while 

219 



220 EXPORT PACKING 

others, in self-defense, have been compelled to raise rates 
in proportion to the risk. This risk is estimated by the 
presidents of several insurance companies to range all 
the way from 100 to 1,000 per cent greater than before 
the war. 

In marine insurance circles, the increase in pilferage 
is ascribed to several factors. First, we have bad pack- 
ing, especially on the part of export concerns that are 
new in the business, houses that came into existence 
during the war. These concerns are in the main the 
cause of the many complaints from consignees; com- 
plaints due to second-hand cases, thin lumber, too few 
nails, lack of metal strapping, failure to use mechanic- 
ally tightened straps and so on. However, there are 
other factors producing these very heavy losses, one 
being the congested conditions existing at shipping ports, 
while a lowered standard of honesty is alleged by some 
insurance people to be a most potent element in the situa- 
tion. It is stated by men in a position to know that in 
many Mexican, South American and Italian ports thiev- 
ery is carried on in an organized way, and it is claimed 
that cargoes to South American ports are subject to pil- 
fering more than those consigned to any other ports. 
It is said to be impossible for a ship to reach a Chilean 
port without its cargo having been pilfered to a greater 
or less degree, and in most cases it is impossible to trace 
the crime to a person in the United States port, on the 
ship or in the Chilean port. 

Effect of Pilfering on Insurance Rates. — It is inter- 
esting to note in this connection that the new policy of 
the French marine underwriters that went into effect 
January 15, 1920, takes particular cognizance of losses 
by theft. So extensive is the pilfering of goods that 
European marine underwriters have become very much 
alarmed. Some companies have increased the rate of 
premium for this class of risk, and others have refused 
to give coverage for certain South American ports. The 
new French schedule shows minimum rates for theft 
ranging from Is 6d to 80s per cent, and these rates are 



PILFERING 221 

to be increased 50 per cent in the case of hosiery, hats, 
boots, shoes, woolens, perfumery, foodstuffs, and so on. 

The rates to different countries for theft insurance 
vary with the conditions in the foreign ports. The new 
French tariff ranges from Is 6d to Canada and the United 
States, to 80s to interior points in Chile. This latter is 
equivalent to 4 per cent in the United States. Insurance 
against theft placed with American companies for the 
interior of Mexico or the west coast of South America 
would be at rates ranging from 1 to 5 per cent, while 
coverage against the same risk on shipments to London 
or other ports of the United Kingdom might be as low 
as 25 cents. 

Testimony from the Argentine. — In a recent report is- 
sued by the United States Chamber of Commerce of the 
Argentine, it was stated that the increase in pilferage 
during the past few months had been alarming. "An 
effort was made to deduce from the evidence received the 
value of the goods stolen, but this was impossible, al- 
though in general terms it would seem to run into hun- 
dreds of thousands of dollars in gold. One curious 
feature developed, and this was that pilferage occurs 
with frequency in articles sent by parcel post, for which 
there is no recourse if no value has been declared. 

"The thefts have all the characteristics of system- 
atized robbery by people who know the merchandise and 
also know the peculiarities of the shippers. It would 
seem, moreover, that a widespread international organ- 
ization was at work, for the same characteristics are 
visible in thefts of merchandise from Italy, France, 
Spain, and England as from the United States. 

"One house imported a lot of 30 automobiles. It is 
the custom of this factory to pack the set of tools in one 
special corner of the case. A hole was cut into this par- 
ticular corner of 29 cases and the tool sets were removed. 
Apparently- the thieves knew exactly where to look for 
the articles they desired. 

"Another house which imports dry goods found that 
zinc lined cases had been opened, the silk contents 



222 EXPORT PACKING 

removed and an equal weight of coal put into the cases 
which were nailed up. Another house which also imports 
dry goods had several cases of silk velvet completely 
rifled and in the cases were found cotton goods of an 
inferior quality. Each of these cases involved losses 
amounting to nearly $10,000 gold. One exporter of silk 
from Europe, with the idea of deceiving the thieves, 
changed his form of packing and also his shipping marks, 
but the thieves went direct to the packages and rifled 
them as though they knew beforehand what they con- 
tained. Two separate shipments, each containing 150,000 
sewing machine needles, were stolen, the empty boxes 
arriving in Buenos Aires, although in this instance the 
shippers have complete security that the merchandise 
was loaded on the steamer in proper condition in New 
York. A merchant makes his custom house declaration 
in harmony with the shipping documents received from 
abroad, and must pay duty on goods that are stolen. 

"The British steamship companies at first, and more 
recently the American steamship companies, have 
included in their bills of lading a clause to the effect 
that the steamer will not be responsible for pilferage in 
all cases in which loss can be covered by insurance. 
Insurance companies are increasing their rates and 
threaten to make still more increases. The attitude of 
the steamship companies and the captains is a direct 
invitation to unrestricted theft on board ship. As theft 
increases, insurance rates will increase and the eventual 
prejudice to legitimate commerce threatens to be very 
grave. 

"The opinion of responsible maritime insurance 
agents and adjusters, who are in close touch with the 
situation, is that the only remedy is for the steamship 
companies to reassume responsibility for pilferage, and 
in case they are unwilling to do so governmental pres- 
sure should be brought to bear to compel them to elimi- 
nate this clause." 

Before taking up methods of pilfering and means of 
detection, it would be well to state that claims for pilfer- 



PILFERING 223 

age frequently take weeks and sometimes months to 
settle, and the insurance companies should receive the 
closest cooperation from the shipper and consignee. 
These latter are particularly slow in reporting claims to 
carriers, but the need of prompt action and close coop- 
eration cannot be too strongly emphasized. 

How Pilfering Occurs. — It should not be supposed for 
a moment that because a case of goods reaches a foreign 
port with a portion of the contents lacking, that this 
means that a thief has been at work aboard ship or in 
the foreign port. Pilfering may occur at any point in 
the journey of the case ; it may occur in the very factory 
manufacturing the goods, or it may occur at some later 
stage. It is therefore of the utmost importance, if pil- 
ferage is to be traced, that every effort be made to be 
sure that the merchandise leaves the factory in good 
shape. The writer knows of a shipment of typewriters 
in which several cases reached their destination without 
the goods. Laborious and painstaking investigation 
developed that when this shipment left the factory sev- 
eral of the cases were minus machines; instead of type- 
writers the cases contained scrap iron of the requisite 
weight. 

This method of substitution is extremely common and 
may take place all along the line. Many instances are 
on record where goods have been stolen from their cases 
*and the cases filled with stones, bricks, or scrap iron; 
the cases are then carefully resealed and delivered. Only 
recently an instance of this was called to the writer's 
attention. A truckman, employed in delivering goods 
to «a pier in Hoboken, N. J., and later found to be a 
member of an organized gang, was caught red-handed 
when it was discovered that he was exchanging cases of 
high-grade textiles, en route to the pier, for other cases 
of the same weight and size and bearing the same marks, 
but containing nothing but waste material. The silk 
industry has been particularly hard hit by this method of 
substitution, and frequently it is extremely difficult to 
find out where the substitution is taking place. Truck- 



224 EXPORT PACKING 

men may resort to other methods. The receiving stamp 
of the freight clerk may be stolen and the bill of lading 
stamped, the goods being sold and the stamped bill of 
lading delivered to the shipper. A box of stolen mer- 
chandise may be substituted for an empty case, and so 
on. A short time ago in removing cargo from a British 
vessel several cases of linens were found to have been 
tampered with. The linens were subsequently found in 
the berths of thirty-three members of the crew. 

The variety of methods used is limited only by the 
ingenuity of the thief. Aboard ship, or anywhere en 
route, a very common method is to loosen the nails or 
straps on a case, slip out a board, and abstract as much 
of the goods as possible, the board then being replaced. 
With this method it is not possible, unless the case is 
sealed, to tell that it has been tampered with until opened 
in the custom house. 




Courtesy of The Stanley Works. 

Figure 1 



How to Minimize Pilferage.— It will be noted that I 
have not headed this paragraph i i How to Prevent Pilfer-* 
rug," for the reason that I do not believe any absolute 
remedy exists. But I do believe that it is possible to 
minimize it, and I will attempt to describees fully as pos- 
sible the most approved methods in use for checkmating 
the thief. It is not possible to absolutely prevent pilfer- 
age because pilferage takes place when goods are packed 
in tin-lined, hermetically sealed cases, and there is no 
safety device, so far as the writer knows, that provides 
the all-around protection which would be required. In- 
deed to prevent pilfering the only sure method would be 
to ship goods in burglar-proof steel cases. The writer 
believes that all that can be done to prevent loss of this 



PILFERING 



225 



character is to adopt certain precautions that will lead to 
the detection of the theft, or deter the thief from tamper- 
ing with the case. In the great majority of shipments 
this is all that need be done, and is absolutely effective. 
Pilferage may be minimized by the manner in which 
the contents of the case are arranged. For example, the 
writer has known houses that shipped shoes with all the 
right shoes in one case and the left shoes in another. 
Another house has shipped the bowls of coffee-grinders 
in one case and the gears in another, while the same 
house packs the breach mechanism of rifles and revolvers 
in a case separate from that in which the stocks are sent 
out. In the case of cutlery the writer has known of the 
sets being broken up in the packing, the knives separate 
from the forks, and so on. 




Com tesy of The Stanley Works. 
Figure 2 

In those shipments where the case is put together 
with screws, these latter may be countersunk and the 
holes filled with wax. Tampering with the case can be 
immediately detected. Another method is to drill small 
holes in each of the boards on the sides, top and bottom 
of a box, pass a cord through these holes and seal the 
ends of the cord with a lead seal. A board cannot be 
removed without cutting the cord. This method, how- 
ever, weakens the box by drilling holes in the boards, 
and the holes also admit moisture. 

Foreign customers of a large New York house spe- 
cializing in automobile accessories advise that a very 
good method for preventing pilfering in their particular 
instance is the practice of strapping the case inside. 
The walls, bottom and cover should be so strapped, not 



226 



EXPORT PACKING 



necessarily by a continuous band, that it is impossible 
for a would-be pilferer to remove or slide out one board 
and replace it without detection. A whole side of the 
case has to be destroyed in order to remove a single 
board. 

In shipping hats, a large American manufacturer 
states that when his goods are forwarded' by steamer to 
Mexico, where the risk of theft is very great, a double 
wooden case is employed, that is, one case inside of 
another, the boards of the inside case running in oppo- 
site directions from the boards of the outside case. 




Courtesy of E. J. Brooks & Co. 



Figure 3 



Steel strapping, properly tightened and securely 
nailed, will do much to make it difficult for a thief to 
enter a case, but one of the best methods is perhaps the 
simplest. This consists in leaving the outside of the case 
free of any marks or plasters that would call attention 
to the character of the contents. Candy and shoes are 
two products that suffer a great deal from pilfering, and 
in these shipments the picture of a shoe or of a box of 
candy on the case is without question the delight of the 
thief. It might be stated here that shipments of boots 
and shoes, wines, liquors and so on, will not be accepted 
by the steamship companies for transportation unless 
the cases are protected by metal straps, wires secured by 
lead seals or some other equally efficient device. 

It is frequently a wise precaution to alter shipping 
marks from time to time. A consignee, for example, who 



PILFERING 



227 



is a regular importer of shoes becomes known by his 
marks, and changing of the mark occasionally will often 
lead the thief astray. Another very simple way to reduce 
pilfering losses to a minimum is to see that good cases 
are used and that these cases are properly constructed 
and properly nailed. A favorite diversion is to drop a 
package, and in case it is defective the goods are scat- 
tered over the dock. Obviously an excellent opportunity 
is given for stealing a certain portion of the contents. 





Courtesy of The Durabla Manufacturing Co. 

Figure 4 



The "Foul" Bill of Lading.— The liability of the 
ocean carrier is much more limited than that of the rail- 
road, but none the less there is a margin of liability and 
the ocean carrier is extremely careful to inspect all 
freight received. A bill of lading with "insufficiently 
packed' ' or similar quotations is known as a "foul" bill 
of lading, as contrasted with a "clean" bill, which indi- 
cates that the packages have been received in good order. 
It should be the duty of the shipper or his agent to see 
that goods delivered in bad shape to the dock are prop- 
erly conditioned before the sailing of the ship, or that 
they are omitted from the shipment, for a "foul" bill is 
going to give trouble at the bank, and if a claim is made 



228 EXPORT PACKING 

against the carrier there is going to be great difficulty 
in getting that claim satisfied, if it is ever satisfied. Here 
we have another urgent argument for good packing, for 
obviously a shipper is going to meet a stone wall when 
he tries to recover for pilfering on the basis of a "foul" 
bill of lading. 

Sealing Devices. — In the foregoing pages we have 
summarized the results of practice with reference to pil- 
fering, and we have also mentioned one or two methods 
of sealing. There are in addition to the methods stated 
a number of devices on the market that seal a case very 
satisfactorily, but let us repeat that none of these devices 
will physically prevent pilfering. The only object of 
sealing a case is to make patent tampering with the case. 
A seal is in the nature of a red flag that is raised as soon 
as the seal is broken. 















1 






I 


ppr™—" -^ 


. 






iii ■■--■■-;*■■ ■-,' 


System, I 


;.■■_■ 'tfitl. i^-!' : 5' 


Courtesy 


ol 


The 


Signode 


ne. 






- 






Figure 5 




A large exporter of textiles in a letter containing 
packing instructions recently sent to mills, comments on 
the frequent pilfering of cases in which the boards are 
not joined by tongue and groove. The pilfering in this 
instance is usually accomplished by drawing the nails 
which pass through the metal bands at both ends of the 
top, side, or bottom and slipping one board forward 
sufficiently to gain entry to the case. 

In order to prevent this form of loss the firm in ques- 
tion recommends the use of the device illustrated in 
Figure 1. This device, which consists of a pronged metal 
strip, is nailed on the inside of the case where the boards 
join, and is said toprevent the removal of a single board. 



PILFERING 229 

In the letter of instruction the firm points out that a 
single board may be slipped out from the sides, or even 
the bottom of a case with almost as much ease as from 
the top, and that the use of the device for the protection 
of the cover alone is not adequate protection for the 
case. For this reason they advocate the use of the device 
on both sides and bottom as a further guarantee of 
security. 

Another device employed for the same purpose and 
consisting of a saw-edge corrugated piece of steel, is illus- 
trated by Figure 2. This device, which is driven into 
adjoining boards, preventing the removal of one board 
without severe mutilation of the next adjoining, is used 
by an international house exporting silverware and has 
likewise been generally used by European exporters of 
wines. The exporters of silverware who use it further 
protect their cases by sealing and strapping them with 
four or five metal bands which make it impossible to open 
a case without leaving evidence of pilferage. 

Another device which has proved satisfactory is a 
safety nail. This nail, as well as the method of using it, 
is illustrated by Figure 3. The top of the nail is notched 
underneath and after being driven into the case it is 
impossible to remove it without breaking. This is shown 
in the fourth cut of the illustration, where the nail is 
being broken with the point of a screwdriver. It is 
reported that this nail was tried out at the Forest Prod- 
ucts Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin, and that it was 
found very efficient. 

A fourth device is a safety clip or seal, and is illus- 
trated by Figure 4. The clip is driven across the out- 
side joints of the box, and the spear-shaped nail is driven 
from the top and passes through the hole in the staple. 
The case is effectually sealed. The writer has seen this 
clip demonstrated and it is impossible, after applying the 
clip, to open the case without disfiguring it badly. 

As will be seen, not all of the devices mentioned above 
are seals in the strict sense of the word, that is, that 
breaking them will show that the case has been tampered 



230 EXPORT PACKING 

with, but none the less they all serve the purpose of 
minimizing pilfering. Also it should be remembered that 
none of these devices are designed to take the place of 
metal straps. 

In the chapter on paper, mention has been made of 
another seal. This is a metal sleeve, illustrated in Figure 
5, which is slipped over the two ends of a metal strap 
and produces a joint that is as strong as the strap itself. 
This seal can be used without nailing the strap, and is 
well adapted to light boxes, bales and bundles the char- 
acter of which does not admit of nailing. The seal is 
attached with a special implement, while another tool is 
used to tighten the strap. Where the case is heavy 
enough to stand nailing, we would recommend that the 
strap be nailed, for the seal would thereby lose none 
of its effectiveness. 



CHAPTER X • 

CUSTOMS REGULATIONS AS AFFECTING 

PACKING 

WE now come to a consideration of customs require- 
ments in foreign countries which may some- 
times have an important bearing on the kinds 
of export packages which should be used. This is es- 
pecially true in shipping to certain Latin American 
countries, but it seems probable that a few peculiar 
conditions in this regard have led to an exaggerated 
idea of the importance of the whole subject. It 
is the rare and exceptional case that any attention 
whatsoever is called for or is given by shippers, so 
far as special packing to meet custom house regulations 
is concerned, when shipments are made to countries of 
Europe, Asia, Africa or Oceania. Neither complaints 
nor special instructions from importers in any markets 
of these parts of the world are common. On the other 
hand, the weights of containers and the problem of pack- 
ing several different kinds of goods in one box, are im- 
portant considerations in shipping to some Latin Ameri- 
can markets. Yet even in these markets importers on a 
large scale, those most familiar with overseas business, 
almost always give specific and detailed instructions 
when they place their orders. When such instructions are 
thus given, they must be adhered to with the most punctil- 
ious care. If it happens that an order is received from a 
Latin American market without special instructions, 
then sometimes the American shipper has time to write 
back to his customer and inquire for any specific instruc- 
tions as to packing, before the goods themselves are ready 
for dispatch. In the contrary case, it is well for the 
shipper to study the custom house regulations of the 
country to which the goods are destined. 

231 



232 EXPORT PACKING 

How Customs Methods Vary. — It must never be as- 
sumed, as seems sometimes to be the case, that methods 
and systems of assessing customs duties in other coun- 
tries are the same as those of the United States. By 
way of illustration it may be pointed out very briefly 
that while most of our American import duties are ad 
valorem yet in many countries of the world, perhaps in 
most, import duties are specific, that is to say, on the 
weight or measurement of the goods as specified in the 
tariff. Then it is to be observed that some countries 
of the world, notably some Latin American republics, 
pay no attention at all to the invoice value of goods but 
their tariffs fix an official valuation for merchandise as 
it is officially described, and duties are assessed on the 
official valuation. Again, not a few countries of the 
world in their tariffs fix a definite stated tare allowance, 
no matter what the actual tare of the box, case, barrel 
or other container may be. More important, however, 
is the fact that customs duties are frequently assessed 
on the gross weight of goods, that is to say, on the weight 
of the case itself as well as the weight of the merchandise 
contained therein. In such instances it is obvious that 
export packages which are sufficiently strong to meet all 
the hazards of overseas shipment and local foreign con- 
ditions, and at the same time are of lighter weight than 
other packages which might be supplied, will be favored 
by the importer. His total cost is less for the goods con- 
tained in the lighter package, and the exporter who has 
studied the subject and devised the lighter package will 
be favored with continued orders as against the exporter 
who ships his goods in unnecessarily heavy packages in- 
volving higher customs, duties. 

Special Packing for Interior Transportation. — It is in 
some of the Latin- American countries particularly that 
special packing to meet crude systems of interior trans- 
portation, or lack of any modern transportation facili- 
ties, makes necessary careful attention to the size and 
even the shape of export packages. This, too, is a prob- 
lem which is, perhaps, much too frequently emphasized. 



CUSTOMS REGULATIONS AND PACKING 233 

Shippers to Turkey or to China are seldom called upon 
to make their packages, or at least their outside con- 
tainers, of any special size or weight, even though in- 
terior transportation systems in those countries are 
crude and goods have to be transported to otherwise in- 
accessible regions on camel-back or by coolies. It is the 
custom in those countries, and in many other countries of 
the world where conditions are primitive, for large im- 
porters in the principal ports of entry to receive their 
goods in bulk form and repack them as may be neces- 
sary (often in assorted miscellaneous packages) to reach 
their destination in the interior safely and satisfactorily. 
In some Latin-American markets, however, there has 
developed the desire on the part of a good many mer- 
chants at interior points (only accessible by pack train 
or by crude ox-carts, by complicated systems of trans- 
fers from railway to river boat, or, at times, to canoes, 
with further transfers by burro) to place direct import 
orders with original manuf actuers ; and possibly less of 
the trade of such markets is handled by large importing 
? ouses at the principal port cities, with the result that 
there are insistent demands from these markets for spe- 
cial packing to meet these local conditions. In these, as 
in all cases of instructions given by customers, shippers 
must adhere strictly to the instructions which they re- 
ceive. In shipments to many parts of the world no par- 
ticular consideration, apart from specific instructions re- 
ceived from customers, is called for on the part of the 
shipper, with reference to size and weight of containers, 
except as those features are governed and dictated by 
general principles applying to all overseas packages. In 
the case of shipments to some Latin- American countries, 
however, the shipper must not only adhere to explicit 
instructions given him by his customer in those markets, 
but may even be expected to exercise his own intelligence 
by studying local conditions in the market to which a 
shipment is destined and adapting his packing to. those 
conditions. 

More Study Required. — In a previous chapter some 



234 EXPORT PACKING 

illustrations have been given of climatic conditions and 
unloading facilities at foreign ports, as affecting the kind 
of export packages in which the shipper should dispatch 
his goods. These are matters about which customers 
rarely give specific instructions. Every shipper is sup- 
posed to know something about geography and everyone 
engaged in the export business must at least have a good 
map of the world before him. He must know where dif- 
ferent countries are located, in what instances shipments 
for given countries have to cross the equator or pass 
through hot, damp stretches of sea water, the Eed Sea 
for example, preparing his export shipment accordingly. 
Every man engaged in the export business must under- 
stand that even as in New York and other American 
ports, so also in the best equipped foreign ports, steamers 
sometimes tie up alongside of piers or quays onto which 
their cargo is immediately discharged, sometimes into 
weather-proof warehouse, sometimes not ; while in other 
cases, in the same ports, it is necessary that steamers 
anchor in the stream and discharge their cargo into 
lighters, which in turn have to be discharged on shore, 
necessitating double or treble handling. These are mat- 
ters of elementary education. The data which follows, 
alphabetically arranged under the different countries of 
the world, are designed to give merely hints or reminders 
of generally prevailing local conditions of climate, port 
facilities and the principles on which customs duties are 
assessed. 

Good strong packing has constantly been insisted 
upon in this book and I do not wish to suggest any de- 
parture from this rule, but it is highly desirable that the 
exporter carefully study the requirements of the country 
of destination when he is making up his export packages 
in order, if possible, to effect substantial savings for his 
foreign customers. Those savings will eventuate in in- 
creased orders, the result of the service rendered by the 
exporter. The rule of good strong packing may therefore 
be modified to read: "The exporter should in every in- 
stance consider carefully the nature of the goods and the 



CUSTOMS REGULATIONS AND PACKING 235 

method used for levying duty." In every shipping or 
traffic department there should be at hand reliable data 
on this subject, so that every effort may be made to pro- 
tect the interests of the customer at the other end. It must 
be remembered that a little carelessness on the part of 
the shipper may mean a large and absolutely unnecessary 
loss to the consignee. 

Principles Involved in Foreign Tariffs. — Before the 
war there were two broad principles laid down in refer- 
ence to duties on importations into countries of Conti- 
nental Europe. Goods that paid duty above a certain rate 
were assessed on actual or legal net weight, while mer- 
chandise that paid a lower rate was assessed on gross 
weight. The fairness of this is obvious, for it would be 
manifestly unjust to levy a high rate of duty on the 
packing boxes containing fine goods, paying a high rate, 
while in the case of ordinary goods, paying a very low 
rate, the levy on the packing itself did not amount to an 
important item. What the situation will be when Euro- 
pean tariff policies have been again determined it is im- 
possible at present to predict. 

In Latin American countries, however, there is no 
such well established rule, for there are as many different 
principles under which duty is assessed as there are 
goods, and the rulings are different in different countries. 
But even in those countries where there are certain uni- 
form principles at work, there is only one way to obtain 
an idea of packing requirements and only one way to 
solve the difficulties, and that is by study of each individ- 
ual instance, when buyers have not given specific instruc- 
tions, as they may reasonably be expected and asked to 
do. In the summary which is given later of custom rul- 
ings in different countries, great divergence is evident 
and it will be seen that further study will facilitate 
progress toward landing goods in the manner most eco- 
nomical and profitable to the importer. 

The Different Weights. — Before taking up the discus- 
sion of different countries, however, certain general state- 
ments should be made. It will be seen that there is con- 



23G EXPORT PACKING 

stant mention made of "net weight/ ' "legal weight" and 
"gross weight." With reference to the gross weight 
there does not seem to be any great difficulty, but defini- 
tions of "legal" and "net" weights are different in many 
countries and they are different for different classes of 
goods. It has been stated that "by actual net weight is 
meant the weight of the merchandise alone, without any 
packing; by legal net weight is understood the gross 
weight less a certain percentage for tare." However, 
from the examples given it will be seen that this is en- 
tirely too general a definition. 

Minimum Duty the Ideal. — In this question of customs 
duties it is not only a matter, especially in shipping to 
Latin America, of reducing the weight of a package as 
far as limits of safety permit, it is also a question of so 
packing goods with reference to the class of goods in the 
package that a minimum of duty will be paid. In a great 
many instances the instructions with the order will give 
the necessary directions, but unfortunately these instruc- 
tions are not always followed and this inevitably means 
loss to the importer. In this connection let us take as 
an illustration the hypothetical example of a Chicago 
manufacturer who is told to forward certain goods to, 
let us say, Siberia, in two crates of 300 pounds each, 
metal parts in one case and wooden parts in another. 
Thinking that he is greatly helping his customer he 
ships all of the goods in one case weighing 600 pounds, 
later learning that more than 300 pounds can not be 
carted over the rough roads of Siberia; that there is a 
relatively high duty on metal goods and a relatively 
low one on wooden goods, and that when both kinds are 
packed together the higher rate is assessed on the 
whole package; and also that the customs house al- 
lows a certain weight for tare which would not have been 
exceeded by either one of the two crates, but which was 
exceeded by the case weighing 600 pounds. 

Another Bad Example. — Again we have an in- 
stance of goods shipped to a Central American country 
where the packing material used was extremely heavy, 



CUSTOMS REGULATIONS AND PACKING 237 

although the duties were levied on gross weight. In this 
instance it would have been quite possible to make the 
packages lighter. Side by side with this shipment there 
were crates of vegetables, which are not dutiable, and 
in this instance the crates were made of the lightest ma- 
terial; many of them had broken en route and the im- 
porter had lost heavily on the shipment. There was loss 
here in each instance, loss which was considerable and 
which could easily have been prevented had due care been 
taken by the shipper. A little study of the laws of this 
Central American state would have led to reducing the 
weight of the packages of one class of goods and increas- 
ing that of the other. 

Customs Regulations. — The regulations given here 
are merely general, and although they have been brought 
up to date as far as possible, many of them will be sub- 
stantially modified in the future by new international 
agreements and new trade conditions. It will be neces- 
sary, therefore, to study the customs rulings of each 
country, and this is advisable in any case, for customs 
rulings even under normal conditions are subject to con- 
stant modifications which the exporter ought to know. 
Obviously it would be impossible in a book of this char- 
acter to give tariff schedules in full, and all we have at- 
tempted is to mirror, as it were, the diversity and variety 
of tariff and customs requirements and specifications. 

Only by constantly seeking information can the ex- 
porter keep in touch with what is going on in this regard, 
and the matter published in this chapter is in no sense de- 
signed to save this labor. Each shipment ought always 
be handled in a more or less individual manner, and the 
documents relating to each consignment must have 
special attention and consideration. 

-Consuls of all foreign countries are located in many 
of the larger cities throughout the United States. Their 
addresses may be obtained from the State Department. 
The latest information in reference to customs and pack- 
ing requirements may always be obtained at the con- 
sulates of the countries to which shipments are destined. 



238 EXPORT PACKING 

Abyssinia. — This country is situated close to the equa- 
tor and shipments to it ordinarily pass through the torrid 
Red Sea. Packing should be of the most thorough char- 
acter to withstand all hazards of heat, humidity, rough 
handling, and exposure, since goods destined to Abyssinia 
usually experience more than one transhipment en 
route. 

Theoretically, the customs duties on imported mer- 
chandise are 10 per cent ad valorem. Goods are landed by 
lighter at the port of Djibouti, French Somaliland, and 
there is railroad transportation to Dire-Dawa, Away 
from the railroad, transportation is chiefly carried on by 
means of mules and camels. A mule can carry a load 
of 180 pounds and a camel one of 450 pounds in this 
country. Packages should therefore weigh accordingly, 
and consideration should be given to the fact that one- 
half the load is normally placed on each side of the pack 
saddle. 

Albania. — Packing should be able to withstand all 
forms of transportation and climatic hazards. At least 
one transhipment is involved while en route. There are 
no railroads and few roads of any kind in the country. 
The climate is temperate. In view of the prevailing 
conditions at the present time the consular regulations 
and those of the steamship companies should be inves- 
tigated and followed. 

Algeria. — The climate of Algeria is subtropical. The 
provisions of the French tariff apply, with few excep- 
tions, as do French consular regulations. Goods should 
be packed to withstand discharge into lighters and all 
other transportation hazards. There is direct steam- 
ship connection with some ports ; for others transhipping 
is necessary. The regulations of the steamship com- 
panies should be investigated. Consuls of France may 
be asked for information as to conditions in this French 
colony. 

Arabia. — This political division was formerly under 
Turkish rule but is now being divided into a number of 
new states. The climate is tropical. Shipments to Ara- 



CUSTOMS REGULATIONS AND PACKING 239 

bia should have the strongest possible packing and should 
be designed to resist all hazards. Steamers pass through 
the Red Sea with its intense heat and transhipments are 
usual. Marks and other details should be investigated 
in each individual case, as it is impossible at present to 
give any reliable facts. As in the case of certain coun- 
tries in Africa the steamship companies have a number 
of packing requirements that must be observed. 

There are practically no railroads or wagon roads in 
this part of the world, and everything is transported on 
the backs of men, mules, asses, or camels. A camel in 
Arabia is reported to carry a load of between 350 and 
390 pounds, a mule about 250 pounds, a donkey 150 
pounds. 

Argentina. — Climatic conditions in Argentina closely 
approximate those of our South Atlantic States, but 
shipments destined to Argentina must pass through the 
tropics on their voyage. At Buenos Aires, Bahia Blanca, 
Rosario, and La Plata boats may discharge at docks and 
quays, but transhipping is frequently necessary. In- 
terior transportation in Argentina is on the whole very 
satisfactory. 

Duties on the majority of articles specified in the 
Argentine tariff are levied on the basis of legal weight, 
in other words, on the gross weight with various reduc- 
tions for tare based upon the nature of the packing. 
Since, if different classes of merchandise are packed in 
one case or package, the customs authorities may assess 
duty on the whole package at the rate to which the high- 
est taxed article included is subject, this practice is best 
avoided. 

Many classes of goods imported into Argentina are 
dutiable on the weight of the goods and the individual 
container, and frequently an effort is made to reduce 
this duty by shipping goods in bulk in a single container. 

Articles subject to duty on the basis of the weight 
of the goods and immediate container, if imported in a 
single container without individual wrapping are dutiable 
by net weight with a ten per cent surcharge. 



240 EXPORT PACKING 

Packages should bear shipping mark of consignee, the 
number of package, and name of steamer carrying goods. 
Packages may be marked with a brush or stencil, but 
the stencil has always been preferred, and marking 
should appear on two adjacent sides of the package. The 
Argentine authorities request that packages be protected 
with special care against pilfering. 

The customs requirements in reference to canned 
goods of both animal and vegetable origin are most ex- 
acting and detailed, and include certain provisions with 
regard to certificates of health, labelling, and composition 
of containers which should be investigated by exporters 
of these products. Similar regulations likewise apply to 
shipments of plants and seeds. Information as to these 
regulations may be obtained upon application to the con- 
sul general of Argentina in New York City. 

Australia. — Packing for Australia must be strong and 
designed to withstand severe handling. Especially must 
pilfering be guarded against, as complaints are frequent 
on this score. The climate ranges from sub-tropical in 
the south to tropical in the north. The voyage from the 
United States is through hot equatorial waters. Port 
conditions are in general good and vessels discharge at 
the wharves at Melbourne, Sydney, Adelaide, Brisbane, 
and Fremantle. Railroad communications are satisfac- 
tory in the eastern portion of Australia, but are not ex- 
tensive in western Australia. However, more freight, 
except for way points, is carried by coasting vessels, re- 
quiring transhipment sometimes more than once. The 
gauges of the several different States of the Common- 
wealth vary, requiring unloading and loading again as 
the State boundaries are crossed. Special packing for 
this condition, as for cart, or (in northern West Aus- 
tralia) camel transportation to reach remote interior sec- 
tions, is always cared for by the large importers in the 
chief ports and requires no special attention from Amer- 
ican shippers, except when specific instructions have been 
given. 

Duties are assessed ad valorem and the value of the 



CUSTOMS REGULATIONS AND PACKING 241 

goods is f. o. b. value at port of shipment plus ten per 
cent. First is taken the value of the article at the net 
price that would be paid for the goods by a cash customer 
at home. To this is added inland cartage and freight 
charges, plus lighterage charges and a number of other 
charges. On the contrary, a number of items, such as 
outside packing, dock fees and others, are not included in 
the dutiable value. Strictly speaking, however, these 
points are for the man who makes out the invoices, and 
the one in charge of the packing should only see that his 
packing is sufficient for the trip, and that it is as eco- 
nomical as the situation warrants. 

Certain shipping lines have their own regulations, as, 
for example, the limiting of shipments packed in bags 
or sacks to a maximum gross weight of 200 pounds, the 
marking of gross weight, in pounds, on packages and the 
requirement that cases destined beyond direct ports be 
iron-strapped. These regulations should be carefully 
investigated. 

Restrictions on importations of cigarettes, tobacco 
and cigars are stringent and should be carefully inves- 
tigated before packing. This also applies to importations 
of alcoholic liquids and drugs. 

The Trade Descriptions Act of 1905 demands most 
careful study. It provides that a carefully defined trade 
description must be applied to certain classes of goods in 
the form of a label or brand ; and is strictly enforced with 
respect to such commodities as shoes, socks, articles of 
food and drink, medicines and pharmaceutical prepara- 
tions, apparel, jewelry, fertilizers, seeds, and plants. 

The principal provisions of the act are to the effect 
that (1) the importation or introduction into Australia 
of any specified goods unless there is applied to them a 
trade description of such character, relating to such mat- 
ters and applied in such manner as is prescribed, may be 
prohibited. (2) No person shall import any goods to 
which a false trade description is applied. These regula- 
tions shall not prescribe a trade description which dis- 
closes trade secrets of manufacture or preparation, un- 



242 EXPORT PACKING 

less in the opinion of the Governor-General the disclosure 
is necessary for the protection of the health or welfare 
of the public. Moreover, it is specifically provided that 
outside packages need not be marked at all unless they 
are the sole containers of goods to which it is imprac- 
ticable to apply the trade description. 

The goods to which the provisions of the act apply 
are: 

"(a) Articles used for food or drink by man, or 
used in the manufacture or preparation of articles used 
for food or drink by man ; or 

"(b) Medicines or medicinal preparations for inter- 
nal or external use; or 

"(c) Manures; or 

"(d) Apparel (including boots and shoes) and the 
materials from which such apparel is manufactured; or 

" (e) Jewelry; or » 

"(f) Seeds and plants.' ' 

The trade description to be applied shall comply with 
the following provisions: 

"(a) It shall be in the form of a principal label or 
brand affixed in a prominent position and in as permanent 
a manner as practicable to the goods, or where affixture 
to the goods is impracticable, to the coverings containing 
the goods; and 

"(b) It shall contain in prominent and legible char- 
acters a true description of the goods, and the name of 
the country or place in which the goods were made or 
produced; and 

"(c) In cases where any weight or quantity is set out, 
it shall specify whether the weight or quantity so set out 
is gross or net. 

"In the case of the following goods, the trade de- 
scription shall in addition, comply with the following 
provisions : 

1 ' In the case of articles of apparel, the trade descrip- 
tion shall state the nature of the principal material of 
which the articles are made, and shall, wherever practi- 
cable, be applied by means of indelible stamping. 



CUSTOMS REGULATIONS AND PACKING 243 

" Where articles of apparel are manufactured of 
fibrous material containing not more than 10 per cent of 
fibre other than the preponderating fibre, the name of 
the preponderating fibre, (e. g., 'Wool') may be used to 
indicate the nature of the material.. In other cases the 
trade description shall set out the names of the principal 
fibres present in the material, or, alternatively, describe 
the material as being made of the preponderating fibre 
'and Other Fibres ' (e. g., 'Wool and Other Fibres'). 

"In the case of piece goods intended for or commonly 
used in the manufacture of articles of apparel, the trade 
description shall specify the names of the principal fibres 
of which the material is composed. 

"Where the material does not contain more than 10 
per cent of fibre other than the preponderating fibre, the 
name of the preponderating fibre may be used in the trade 
description to indicate the nature of the material. In 
other cases the trade description shall set out the names 
of the principal fibres present in the material, or, alter- 
natively, describe the material as being made of the pre- 
ponderating fibre 'and Other Fibres' (e. g., 'Wool and 
Other Fibres'). In cases where any substance (other 
than ordinary dressing) has been used in the prepara- 
tion or manufacture which has the effect of loading or 
weighting the material, the word 'Loaded' or ' Weighted ' 
shall also be included in the trade description. 

"In the case of boots and shoes manufactured wholly 
or partly from leather or any imitation thereof, the trade 
description shall set out the principal material from 
which they have been made, and unless the soles are solid 
leather, without admixture or addition other than or- 
dinary fillers of cork or of waterproofed felt, shall state 
the nature of the admixture or addition, and a statement 
of the material or materials composing the sole shall, 
in addition, be conspicuously, legibly, and indelibly 
stamped upon or impressed into the outer surface of the 
sole of each boot or shoe. 

"In the case of leather containing any loading of- any 
mineral or other weighting substance, the trade descrip- 



244 EXPORT PACKING 

tion shall include a statement setting out the name of 
each loading substance contained in the leather, and the 
percentage thereof. Provided that the following shall 
not be deemed to be loading substances within the mean- 
ing of this Regulation: Glucose and sugar to the extent 
of not more than 3 per cent taken together, and fats and 
oils used in the manufacture and preparation of the 
leather. 

"In the case of gold jewelry the carat quality shall 
be conspicuously set out in the trade description applied 
to the goods, and shall also, where practicable, be legibly 
stamped or engraved upon each article. 

"In the case of jewelry wholly or partly covered by 
gold, the words ' Rolled Gold,' 'Gold Cased,' 'Gold 
Plated,' or 'Gilt,' as the case requires, shall be conspicu- 
ously set out in the trade description applied to the goods, 
and shall also, where practicable, be legibly stamped up- 
on each article. 

"In the case of silver jewelry not marked with a 
British hall-mark, the degree of millesimal fineness 
(e.g., '.925 fine') shall be conspicuously set out in the 
trade description applied to the goods, and the number 
indicating such degree of millesimal fineness shall also, 
where practicable, be legibly stamped or engraved upon 
each article." 

"In the case of jewelry which, not being gold or sil- 
ver, nor coated with gold or silver, is colored to represent 
gold or silver or gold and silver, the words 'Imitation 
Jewelry' shall be conspicuously set out in the trade de- 
scription applied to the goods, and the word 'Imitation' 
shall also, where practicable, be legibly stamped upon 
each article.'' 

The detailed provisions of the act with respect to 
apparel, including boots and shoes, the material from 
which apparel is manufactured, and jewelry, are set 
forth in a twenty-five page pamphlet which may be pro- 
cured by manufacturers of the commodities affected from 
the representative of the Department of Trade and Cus- 
toms of the Commonwealth of Australia in New York City. 



CUSTOMS REGULATIONS AND PACKING 245 

Austria. — Climatic conditions in Austria are similar 
to those of the eastern Atlantic States, and under normal 
conditions railroad transportation is excellent. Under 
the terms of the Peace Treaty, Austria is u a completely 
landlocked country and goods destined to Austria are 
normally shipped via German, Dutch, Italian and other 
European ports. The conditions applying to these coun- 
tries respectively will, in general, therefore, apply to 
shipments to Austria. 

No unusual packing is called for, apart from adequate 
overseas protection. Owing to the uncertain political 
conditions at present reigning in Austria, information 
with respect to the permanent tariff of that country is 
lacking. Under the former Austro-Hungarian tariff 
goods dutiable at the rate of 7.50 crowns or less per 100 
kilos for which no tare allowance was specified by the 
tariff, were dutiable on the basis of gross weight. Duties 
on goods which were subject to a higher rate of duty than 
the above were assessed on the basis of net weight, which 
in this instance was equivalent to gross weight with de- 
duction of tare allowance according to the tare schedule 
annexed to the tariff. In the case of liquids the dutiable 
weight included that of the immediate container. 

Bahama Islands. — The climate of the Bahama Islands 
is tropical. The islands are reached at frequent inter- 
vals by direct steamer from New York. Goods are or- 
dinarily transferred by lighters. There are no official 
restrictions with respect to shipping marks or weights. 
The Bahama Islands are a British colony and informa- 
tion about local conditions may be obtained from British 
Consular officials. 

Belgium. — The climate of Belgium is similar to that 
of New York. There are frequent and good direct sail- 
ings. At the ports of Antwerp and Ghent the vessels 
discharge at the docks or quays, with improved modern 
facilities. Transportation by railway and canal is similar 
to our own. There are no official restrictions as to marks 
or weights, but several of the shipping companies stipu- 
late that gross weights in pounds must be marked on 



246 EXPORT PACKING 

packages. Goods imported into Belgium are dutiable 
on actual or net weight and ad valorum. A new tariff 
went into effect June 12, 1920. 

Bermuda. — Climate is subtropical. There are direct 
steamers from New York. There are no official restric- 
tions with respect to marks or weights. British consuls 
may be asked for information regarding this colony. 

Bolivia. — Shipments to Bolivia should be most care- 
fully protected against damage by the elements and also 
against the perils of rough handling. The instructions of 
the customer should be most carefully followed. The 
goods are exposed to the hardships of several tranship- 
ments by lighters, rail and river boats, and the interior 
means of transportation are most primitive. 

Bolivia lies wholly within the tropics, but the tem- 
perature at a given place depends entirely upon the alti- 
tude of its location. The climate of La Paz and Potosi, 
the two principal cities which are respectively 12,000 and 
13,600 feet above sea level, is normally temperate. Bo- 
livia has a rainy season lasting from December to May, 
and a dry season from May to December. In south- 
eastern Bolivia the climate is subtropical. 

Bolivia is entirely landlocked and all commerce with 
the outside world passes through the territory of its 
neighbors. The ports through which this commerce 
passes are Antofagasta and Arica, in Chile, and Mol- 
lendo, in Peru, on the Pacific; Buenos Aires, for transport 
by the Argentine railway route to the southern parts 
of Bolivia ; and Para, on the Brazilian Amazon, for the 
very limited commerce of the extreme northeast. Of 
the six cities of Bolivia with a population of 20,000 or 
more, only La Paz and Oruro can be reached by rail. 
The transfer of freight throughout the interior of Bolivia 
is by means of donkeys, llamas, mules and Indians. Re- 
ports from Bolivia state that a llama can carry a bale of 
not over 100 pounds, a donkey can carry two 100 pound 
bales, one on each side, while a mule can carry two 125 
pound bales, one on each side. 

Articles on which duty is assessed may be dutiable 



CUSTOMS REGULATIONS AND PACKING 247 

either on net weight, gross weight, or on the weight of 
the merchandise, together with that of the immediate 
packing, snch as a cardboard box or paper. The term 
"immediate packing" does not include wooden or tin 
boxes, or any material serving as a covering for the out- 
side containers. Mixed packing is not subject to penalty 
unless it is employed as a method of defrauding the 
customs. 

Marks and numbers and net and gross weights should 
appear on all packages. Special care should be taken also 
to mark on each package in large letters, "En transito a 
Bolivia" (In transit to Bolivia). This method has been 
adopted for the purpose of expediting the landing of 
freight and its separation and entry in the respective 
warehouses; and also to prevent customs duties being 
collected twice on the same goods. Packages sent by way 
of Chile must be marked with a stencil, while those sent 
tnrough other countries may be marked either with a 
stencil or brush. 

Brazil. — Goods destined to Brazil should be packed 
with due allowance for rough handling to wtiich they may 
be subject. At the ports of Rio de Janeiro, Santos, Para, 
Rio Grande do Sul and Pernambuco, steamers may dock 
at quays, but at many other ports along the entire coast 
goods must be discharged into lighters, often in 
open roadsteads. Some of the principal ports are 
reached by direct steamers, others only by transhipment. 
The tropical climate of Brazil must also be taken into 
consideration and goods packed accordingly, above all for 
the Amazon ports. Interior transportation in Brazil is 
to a large extent fluvial, since railroad transportation, ex- 
cepting in the southern portions of the country, is not 
extensive, and overland transportation is carried on by 
mules, carts, and other methods, even (in the remote 
Amazon country) by canoes. 

Under the Brazilian tariff, articles which are dutiable 
by weight are specifically subject to duties either on the 
basis of gross weight, legal net weight, or actual net 
weight. Gross weight is that of the goods and packing 



248 EXPORT PACKING 

together, with the exception of rough wooden containers. 
Legal net weight is equivalent to gross weight less the 
different tare allowances specified in the tariff for vari- 
ous kinds of merchandise and containers. Actual net 
weight is the weight of the merchandise without any pack- 
ing. If goods dutiable on legal net weight and actual net 
weight are imported in the same package the duty on both 
is assessed on the basis of actual net weight. When goods 
dutiable on net weight but subject to different tare al- 
lowances are imported in the same package, duty is as- 
sessed on the basis of actual net weight. When goods 
subject to different rates of duty, all being subject to 
duty on the basis of gross weight, are imported in the 
same package, the weight of the packing is proportion- 
ately distributed among the various kinds of merchandise 
which the package contains. In this instance some study 
of the Brazilian tariff will repay the exporter. In every 
instance the Brazilian importer should clearly specify 
the packing procedure which he wishes followed. 

Packages may be marked with brush or stencil, but 
the practice of separating or breaking up shipments for 
clearing is not permitted. Goods for different consignees 
should not be placed in the same case, as duty will have 
to be paid on all the goods before they can be cleared. 
The general rule of good packing practice, that the side 
of the case where mark and number appear should be 
free from other marks or instructions, is insisted on by 
the Brazilian authorities, although the weights need not 
be marked on the packages. 

The first necessity in packing goods for Brazil is that 
goods should be so cased and so protected within the 
cases that they can be safely dropped a considerable dis- 
tance. Goods should be protected against dampness, 
against heat, in case they are stored near boilers, against 
the use of hooks, and so far as possible against exposure 
to rain and sea water. 

In portions of Brazil, particularly the Amazon River 
district, the cases, nails and straps used for packing 
goods have considerable value. Boxes are carefully pre- 



CUSTOMS REGULATIONS AND PACKING 249 

served and barrels of all kinds are worth more than their 
original cost. To be sure this only applies to good cases 
and good barrels, and if the exporter wishes to add an 
important element to the popularity of his goods in this 
part of the world, he will see to it that his packing ma- 
terials are first class. 

As in the case of the Argentine, the Brazilian authori- 
ties are most exacting in the matter of labeling goods. 
Manufacturers of pharmaceutical preparations and food- 
stuffs should consult the regulations applying to these 
commodities which may be procured at the Brazilian 
consulate. 

British East Africa. — Packing should be sufficiently 
strong to withstand tropical heat and all hazards of 
transportation. There are no official restrictions as to 
marks or weights, but the requirements of the steamship 
companies should be investigated and followed. Cargo at 
Mombasa is discharged into lighters. British East Africa 
is usually reached from the United States by tranship- 
ping en route. Information with respect to this colony 
may be obtained from British consular officials. 

British Guiana.— Shipments to British Guiana must 
be prepared to meet every hazard of transportation and 
tropical climate. Practically, there are no railways and 
transportation must be done by rivers, man, or beast. 
Steamers ply directly from New York to Georgetown. 
There are no'restrictions as to marks, although the dif- 
ferent steamship companies have certain requirements of 
their own. These should be obtained from the companies 
themselves. Special information may be sought from 
British consuls. 

British Honduras. — Landing of cargo is by lighters, 
but steamers from several American ports run directly 
to Belize. The general remarks are the necessity of 
packing to resist all hazards made under the heading 
" Honduras" apply also to British Honduras. Some 
shipments for southern Mexico are routed via Belize and 
require special care in packing. The climate of British 
Honduras is tropical. There are no official restrictions 



250 EXPORT PACKING 

as to shipping marks, weights, etc. Further inquiries 
may be made of British consuls. 

British Somaliland. — The duties assessed at Zeyla and 
all other ports are ad valorem with few exceptions. There 
are no official restrictions as to marks or weights, but 
the regulations of the steamship companies should be in- 
vestigated. Packing should be of such a nature as to 
withstand extreme tropical climate and all hazards of 
crude landing and interior transportations, as well as 
transhipments en route. The interests of this colony 
are in the hands of British consuls. 

British West Indies.— The British West Indies com- 
prise the Bahama Islands, Barbados, Jamaica, the Lee- 
ward Islands, Trinidad and Tobago and the Windward 
Islands. Separate mention is made in this chapter of the 
Bahama Islands and Jamaica. The interests of these 
islands in the United States are in charge of British con- 
sular officials. 

The principal island colonies of Great Britain in the 
Leeward group are St. Kitts, Antigua and Dominica, 
which have frequent steamship connections with New 
York and other American ports. The principal British 
islands of the Windward group are Grenada, St. Vincent, 
St. Lucia, and Barbados. Some of these islands are 
reached by direct steamers from New York. Trinidad, 
lying off the coast of Venezuela, and Tobago, lying be- 
tween Trinidad and Grenada, are likewise reached by 
direct steamers. 

The climate of these islands is subtropical. While 
certain ports are reached by direct steamers, others are 
served by transhipping to small coastal vessels, which 
involves the further risks of repeated handling. Again, 
although certain ports, such as Port Castries, St. Lucia, 
have good harbors and are notably safe, in others ships 
are anchored in the open roadstead. Packing should be 
able to withstand the hazards incident upon transfer by 
lighter from ship to land, and adequate waterproof pro- 
tection should always be given in view of the frequency 
of exposure to rain. There are no official restrictions as 



CUSTOMS REGULATIONS AND PACKING 251 

to marks and weights of packages, but certain steamship 
companies have their own regulations which should be 
investigated. No special packing is called for by cus- 
tom house regulations. 

Bulgaria. — The climate of Bulgaria is temperate. 
Steamers from New York sometimes call at Bulgarian 
ports. Landing of cargo is usually by lighter. Packing 
should be sufficiently strong to withstand interior trans- 
portation. Merchandise dutiable at the rate of 10 levs 
or less per 100 kilos is, with few exceptions, dutiable on 
the basis of gross weight. Duty is assessed on the basis 
of net weight on merchandise subject to higher rates of 
duty. In view of the prevailing conditions at the present 
time the consular regulations and those of the steamship 
companies should be investigated and followed. 

Canary Islands.— Climate is tropical. As there are 
rarely direct sailings from New York, transhipments 
must usually be expected. Cargo is landed by lighters. 
Customs regulations given under Spain apply, and any 
special information should be sought from Spanish 
consuls. 

Chile. — Goods are generally landed at Chilian ports 
by lighters, and both conditions and methods prevailing 
are severe. Antofagasta, especially, has the reputation 
of being one of the stormiest ports of the Pacific where 
lighterage is frequently interrupted by the violence of the 
sea. Goods should be most securely packed and pro- 
tected against the elements. The climate may be de- 
scribed as temperate and interior transportation con- 
ditions are normal. Some direct steamers from the 
United States call at most of the large ports, others only 
at a few ports, requiring transhipment. 

Merchandise subject to duty by weight may be duti- 
able on net weight, gross weight, weight including pack- 
ing, or weight including containers. The following defini- 
tions and rules are taken from the general rules for the 
application of the customs tariff of November 25, 1907 : 

"3. By 'net weight' is understood the actual weight 
of the goods, without packing, receptacles, or wrappers. 



252 EXPORT PACKING 

"4. The term 'weight including packing' means the 
weight of the goods, together with all packing, recepta- 
cles, or cords contained in the outer container except the 
straw, shavings, paper, sawdust, or other material used 
for protecting the contents. This rule shall not apply to 
goods for which special rules are provided in the tariff. 

"5. ' Weight including container' means the weight 
of the goods together with immediate receptacles, even 
if no other container were used for their transportation. 

il 6. i Gross weight' means the weight of the goods 
together with all receptacles and packing. Goods usually 
transported without packing or in bundles, as rails, 
girders, etc., are included in this section. 

"7. By 'ordinary receptacles' are to be understood 
earthenware or glass pots, bottles or flasks; iron, zinc, 
tin, copper, or lead drums, wooden cases, cardboard or 
tinplate boxes, and any other containers of indispensable 
use. Receptacles not usually employed for the goods they 
contain and having a separate value or use shall be con- 
sidered as dutiable merchandise and appraised sep- 
arately. 

"8. When goods dutiable on 'weight including pack- 
ing' are imported loose in bulk or bundles, or without 
packing within the outer container, the net weight shall 
be increased by 10 per cent. The same additional weight 
shall apply to the net weight when articles are imported 
in cases ('estuches') 1 , unless otherwise expressly pro- 
vided in the tariff. 

"9. If goods subject to distinct rules as to weight, 
valuation, or duty are imported in the same package, they 
shall be weighed in the condition in which presented ; and 
there shall be added 10 per cent in the case of goods duti- 
able on weight including packing, if imported without 
packing; 20 per cent in the case of goods dutiable, on 
gross weight, if contained in a receptacle or packing; 
and 30 per cent if not so contained or packed. Glass, 
earthen, and china wares, furniture, enameled articles of 
wrought iron, paraffin lamps, and iron bedsteads are ex- 

a This refers to instrument and similar cases, and not to packing cases. 



CUSTOMS REGULATIONS AND PACKING 253 

cepted, and shall be liable to an increase of 80 per cent 
on their net weight. 

"10. For the purpose of assessing duty according to 
gross weight on envelopes and writing paper imported 
together in the same package, the weight of the package 
shall be added proportionately to the net weight of the 
contents. 

"11. If bottles of the kinds specified in tariff No. 
974 are imported in special cases used for liquors, the 
second portion of above rule 7 shall apply, and, as stipu- 
lated, the gross weight of the packing is to be ascer- 
tained, and the outside packing case is to be weighed 
separately, the remaining weight being attributed to the 
bottles, whether in straw envelopes or not. In such case 
the package shall not be subject to the surtaxes estab- 
lished in rule 9, 

"12. If imported iron bedsteads are not packed in 
cases or hampers, they shall be appraised according to 
net weight, in their corresponding class, with an addi- 
tional 80 per cent. 

"13. When artificial flowers and neckties are im- 
ported packed otherwise than in cardboad or wooden 
boxes, the net weight shall be increased by 100 per cent. 

"14. Cases 1 for jewelry, watches, and gold, silver, 
or platinum wares are included in the appraisement of 
such articles. Any extra cases are dutiable separately 
in their corresponding class. 

If metal manufactures are imported in cases ('es- 
tuches'), 1 the latter shall be appraised separately in 
their corresponding class. 

In marking packages for shipment a stencil should 
be used ; the use of a brush is not permitted. Packages 
must show number, marks, gross weight in kilos with 
words "Gross Kilos' ' by the side of the numerals, and all 
marks must not be smaller than two and one-half inches 
in height unless size of package does not admit of mark- 
ings of this height. A variation in weight of only one- 
half of one per cent is allowed. 

x This refers to instrument and similar cases, and not to packing cases. 



254 EXPORT PACKING 

China. — There are no restrictions as to marking and 
packing and the problem with reference to China is not 
one dictated by government prescriptions, although the 
steamship companies have certain regulations which must 
be complied with. There are frequent sailings directly 
from United States ports to the principal ports of China. 
The packing problem is essentially one that is conditioned 
by climate and transportation. Cargo is ordinarily 
lightered from steamers to wharves, where it often lies 
for days exposed to the elements before being carried 
by coolies to warehouses, or " go-downs' ' as they are 
called. It must be remembered that China offers prac- 
tically every form of meteorological condition, from the 
sixty degrees of frost in Manchuria to the malarial 
swamps of subtropical Yunnan. In the northern sections 
the winters are severe, the rivers are frozen for months 
and a large part of the coast line is ice-bound. In south 
China subtropical conditions prevail modified, however, 
to an important extent by varying degrees of altitude. 

Interior transportation, the many transhipments and 
other hazards call for the most carefully considered pack- 
ing, when especially requested by consignees. However, 
the great bulk of Chinese imports is received by the large 
distributors in the chief ports of entry and is by them re- 
packed as interior demands and conditions make neces- 
sary. Practically all goods imported into China are at 
one time or another transported by coolie, pack mule, 
cart, wheelbarrow or donkey. The average load for one 
coolie is 100 pounds, transported in two packages of 50 
pounds each, on the end of a bamboo pole ; and where the 
load is carried by two coolies the weight can be 160 
pounds, this likewise being transported on a long pole, 
each end carried by a coolie. Heavier loads require four 
or more coolies. Many of the small pack animals em- 
ployed, particularly in the mountainous sections, cannot 
carry over one picul, 133 pounds. 

Colombia, — Goods may be landed directly on the 
wharves of certain Colombian ports or they may be 
lightered from steamers which ply regularly from. the 



CUSTOMS REGULATIONS AND PACKING 255 

United States. However, goods shipped to Colombia 
must be most thoroughly protected against every possible 
hazard, as the conditions of interior transportation and 
those of the climate are most severe. The climate of the 
coast cities is tropical, but becomes temperate in the 
towns high up among the mountains. Colombia offers 
almost every conceivable difficulty from the standpoint 
of transportation, which may be effected by train, steam- 
boat, mules, oxen and men, and frequently the packages 
will be exposed for hours to tropical rains, succeeded by 
intense heat. There is little, if any, modern freight han- 
dling equipment at terminals and hand labor is depended 
upon entirely. Packing for Colombia should be designed 
after the most thorough investigation and study of the 
conditions to which the shipment will be subjected, and 
the geographical location of city of destination. 

Each package should be marked and numbered dis- 
tinctly, and it is advisable to mark the weight on each 
package, though this is not required by law. The marking 
may be done with either stencil or brush. 

Duty is levied on the basis of gross weight. If mer- 
chandise subject to different rates of duty is packed m 
the same container, the gross and net weight of each kind 
of merchandise must be separately indicated, or the en- 
tire package is subject to duty at the rate payable by the 
highest taxed article included in it. 

Whereas different kinds of goods may be packed in 
one package this is not good practice, but when goods 
bearing different duty classifications are packed together 
the weight of the container or packing is divided pro- 
portionately in determininig duties. When a container 
is dutiable at a rate higher than the article contained 
therein, the container must be separately declared. On 
the contrary, when the container carries a lower duty 
than the contents the entire package bears the higher 
duty. 

A recent British official publication states in part that 
"many important firms dealing with Colombia are of 
the opinion that packing is perhaps more important than 



256 EXPORT PACKING 

cheap prices. It is undoubtedly true that once a Colom- 
bian firm gets hold of a foreign firm that will take the 
trouble to follow out carefully packing instructions, it 
will continue to place orders although cheaper prices may 
be offered from another quarter. The Colombian cus- 
toms tariffs are based on a fixed rate per article per kilo 
of gross weight. Owing to the inadequate internal com- 
munications of the country, any merchandise brought 
into the interior must undergo very severe handling and 
be subjected to many changes from railway tO'Steamer, 
and from steamer to railway. It is therefore of the ut- 
most importance that goods imported into Colombia 
should be packed in such a way that they will be able to 
withstand the very rough journey inland, and at the same 
time that the packing shall be sufficiently light to avoid 
excessive customs duties. Bales of goods, etc., should, 
if possible, not exceed 90 kilos, nor should they weigh 
less than 70 kilos.' ' It should be noted, however, that 
the best practice prescribes packages weighing not more 
than 120 pounds (preferably, 110 pounds) and measuring 
not over 30 to 36 inches in length where muleback trans- 
portation is involved. Mule drivers always select the 
small and convenient packages for prompt despatch, leav- 
ing heavy pieces to wait sometimes for weeks. 

A steamship service has been inaugurated to Buena- 
ventura on the west coast of Colombia, thus eliminating 
transhipment at Panama. It should, however, be re- 
membered that goods consigned inland from this port are 
carried in canoes or on mule pack and that packages 
must, therefore, be small and should not in any event 
exceed 85 kilos each net weight. 

A special agent of the Bureau of Foreign and Domes- 
tic Commerce lists as follows the wanderings of mer- 
chandise from the coast to Bogota, the capital of Co- 
lombia : 

"It may be well to enumerate the necessary transfers 
of shipments on their way from the coast to Bogota, as 
follows : From steamer at Puerto Colombia to train, 
which takes the merchandise to Barranquilla ; at Barran- 



CUSTOMS REGULATIONS AND PACKING 257 

quilla from train to custom-house; from custom-house 
to the boats of the lower Magdalena River; from the 
lower Magdalena River boats at La Dorado to train, 
which takes the goods to Beltran. At Beltran the mer- 
chandise is unloaded from the train to be put aboard 
the steamers of the upper Magdalena River, which pro- 
ceed to Girardot, where the goods are unloaded and 
placed on train. This train proceeds as far as Facatativa, 
where transfer is made from the yard-gauge railroad to 
the meter-gauge railroad of the plateau, which finally 
lands the goods in Bogota. All these conditions make 
careful packing indispensable. All goods and machinery 
should be packed in waterproofing because of the exces- 
sive humidity, the cases should be of medium size wher- 
ever possible, and full attention must be paid to Colom- 
bian customs regulations." 

Costa Rica.— At Port Limon, on the Caribbean side, 
terminal facilities are good, while at Puntarenas, the port 
on the Pacific coast, cargo is taken off ships on lighters. 
There are direct steamship services from the United 
States to both ports. Packing should be able to with- 
stand hard treatment. The climate at sea level is trop- 
ical, but in the high altitudes is temperate and agreeable. 
The rail connections between the principal cities are 
good. 

Under the Costa Rican tariff duty is levied on the 
gross weight. If goods subject to different rates of duty 
are packed in the same container the net weight of each 
kind of merchandise should be indicated, so that each sep- 
arate class of merchandise can bear a proportionate share 
of the weight of the packing. If this information is not 
furnished the entire package is subject to duty at the 
rate payable by the highest taxed article included in it. 

Packages may be marked with either stencil or brush, 
and weights need not be shown on the packages. 

Cuba.— At nearly every Cuban port goods are light- 
ered ashore. Direct steamers from the United States 
carry freight to Havana, Santiago and some other ports 
of the island. The receiving of the goods on shore, while 



258 EXPORT PACKING 

not aided by modern dock methods, is still accomplished 
well and the storage is efficient in its protection. There 
is considerable coastwise traffic by small steamers and 
sailing vessels. Land transportation is in the main sat- 
isfactory, including modern railway systems. The climate 
is subtropical. 

The Cuban tariff provides that articles are dutiable 
on either gross weight, actual net weight, legal net weight, 
or ad valorem, and the tariff indicates under which of 
these classes the duty on goods will be assessed. Legal 
net weight is determined in accordance with the schedule 
of tare allowances annexed to the tariff. In the case of 
goods dutiable on gross weight and subject to a specific 
tare allowance for containers, this allowance is made only 
on articles packed in boxes, barrels, crates, and other reg- 
ular receptacles. However, for some articles a tare al- 
lowance is specified for lighter forms of packing, such 
as bales. Packages may be marked with either stencil or 
brush. Weights need not be marked on the packages. 

Denmark. — Climate and transportation conditions are 
comparable to those of the northern United States. Goods 
are landed at modern wharves. There are no restrictions 
as to marks, weights, etc, Duty is assessed on the basis of 
net weight, which includes the weight of individual re- 
ceptacles in which goods are sold at retail, as well as 
paper or cloth wrappers. The steamship companies have 
certain regulations which should be investigated and fol- 
lowed. 

Dominican Republic. — Terminal facilities are poor 
and goods are landed in lighters. There are direct 
steamers from New York to a few ports; transhipment 
is necessary to reach others. Interior communications 
are primitive. The climate is subtropical with much rain. 
Goods should be packed to withstand the hazards of the 
elements and hard handling, with specially good water- 
proof protection and every device against pilfering. 
Packages should not be inconveniently large. 

Duties are assessed either on the basis of gross or net 
weight. The following regulations and definitions are 



CUSTOMS REGULATIONS AND PACKING 259 

taken from the Dominican customs tariff in force Jan- 
uary 1, 1910 : 

"Rule 29. No duty shall be collected on outer cover- 
ings containing articles dutiable on net weight, by the 
piece, or free of duty, if such coverings are in general 
use for packing at the time when imported, except water- 
tight coopers' wares containing any of the above mer- 
chandise, which shall be dutiable. Coverings of mer- 
chandise (outer or inner), of material or form designed 
to evade duties, or which may be used for other purposes 
than common packing, or of unusual form, shall be sub- 
ject to duty under paragraphs of the tariff to which they 
correspond by classification. Inner packing containing 
merchandise paying duty on the net weight shall in no 
case pay a lower rate of duty than their contents. Cases 
of jewelry, used as immediate containers therefor, shall 
be dutiable under their respective paragraphs. 

"Rule 30. — Whenever merchandise shall be dutiable 
on gross weight, the dutiable weight of such merchandise 
shall include the weight of all covers, receptacles, wrap- 
pers, packages, and packing of every description, whether 
outer, inner or immediate, without any allowance for tare. 

"Rule 31. In all instances where merchandise shall 
be dutiable on net weight, the dutiable weight of such 
merchandise shall not include any common outer cover, 
receptacle, package, wrapper or packing, but shall include 
all inner or immediate receptacles, including cards and 
cartons, not subject to a higher rate of duty. Loose 
straw, shavings, excelsior, paper, sawdust, or other sim- 
ilar materials, interposed between the outer receptacle 
and immediate container of the merchandise to steady 
and protect the same, shall not be considered as part of 
the immediate container. 

"Rule 32. When goods dutiable on net weight, by 
the piece, ad valorem, or free of duty, are imported in 
the same container with others dutiable on gross weight, 
the former shall be assessed on their net weight, as de- 
fined in rule 31, by the piece, ad valorem, or shall be free 
of duty, as the case may be, and the latter shall be duti- 



260 EXPORT PACKING 

able on the net weight, as defined in Rule 31, with an 
addition of 25 per cent thereof. 

"Rule 33. All the provisions of Rules 30, 31, and 32 
regarding gross and net weight shall be applicable to 
goods subject to compound duties, when the gross or net 
weight forms part of the compound duty." 

Weights need not be marked on the packages. Pack- 
ages may be marked with a stencil or brush. 

Dutch East Indies. — Goods should be packed to with- 
stand discharge into lighters and hazards of an excessive- 
ly tropical climate. Consular regulations are those of 
Holland. There are regular, direct steamship services 
from the United States to some of the principal ports. 
The tariff assesses both ad valorem and specific duties 
based on weight. The regulations of the steamship com- 
panies should be investigated. No special packing con- 
siderations are otherwise called for, unless especially in- 
structed by customers. General information about these 
colonies may be had from consuls of Holland. 

Dutch Guiana. — Shipments must be prepared to meet 
every hazard of a tropical climate, landing and transpor- 
tation. There are direct steamers from New York to 
Paramaribo. There are no restrictions as to shipping 
marks, etc., except such as are prescribed by the different 
steamship companies. Most articles dutiable by weight 
are dutiable either by gross or net weight as the importer 
may elect. Consignees ' instructions with respect to pack- 
ing should therefore be carefully followed. Consuls of 
Holland may be asked for general information about 
Dutch Guiana. 

Dutch West Indies. — The Dutch colonies in the West 
Indies comprise the islands of Curasao, Bonaire, Aruba, 
Saba, St. Eustatius and half of the island of St. Martin. 
The interests of these islands are in the care of consular 
officials of the Netherlands, from whom any special in- 
formation should be sought. 

The climate of these islands is subtropical and heavy 
rains are prevalent. Willemstadt, the port of Curagao, 
is reached by several direct steamship lines from New 



CUSTOMS REGULATIONS AND PACKING 261 

York and one from New Orleans. The islands of Saba 
and St. Eustatius, in the Leeward Islands, are reached 
by transhipment via St. Kitts, while St. Martin is 
reached at irregular intervals by direct steamers from 
New York. Packing should be prepared with these con- 
ditions in view. 

Ecuador. — Goods for Ecuador should be protected in 
every way against bad handling and climatic conditions, 
ranging from torrid tropical on the coast to cool in the 
mountains at elevations of thousands of feet. Guayaquil 
is sometimes reached by direct" steamers, but tranship- 
ment is common. All forms of transportation and ter- 
minal facilities are most primitive. Cargo is lightered 
ashore from arriving steamers and is handled many times 
over by hand before reaching destination. Cases should 
not, if avoidable, exceed 112 pounds in weight, to facili- 
tate handling and interior transportation. 

Customs duties are assessed either on the basis of 
gross or net weight, according to the kind of merchandise. 
Although goods subject to different rates of duty may be 
packed in the same container without being subjected to 
any official penalty, consuls of Ecuador require, when this 
practice is followed, that the shipper state in the consular 
invoice the net weight in kilos of each kind of merchan- 
dise so included, as well as the gross weight of the entire 
package. 

Packages may be marked with a stencil or brush and 
should show gross weight in kilos. 

Egypt. — The climate of Egypt is hot and dry. Alex- 
andria is reached by direct steamers from New York, but 
not infrequently transhipment is necessary. Cargo is 
sometimes landed directly on the quays in Alexandria, 
sometimes by lighter. There are excellent railways and 
the Nile boat services are satisfactory. Apart from 
special instructions which may be received, no special 
attention is required so far as size and weight of pack- 
ages are concerned, although it should be noted that un- 
skilled native hand labor is utilized and some difficulties 
are experienced with very heavy pieces. 



262 EXPORT PACKING 

There are no official restrictions with regard to mark- 
ing, but certain of the steamship companies require that 
the gross weight in pounds must be marked on packages 
and these and other regulations should be carefully in- 
vestigated. The interests of Egypt in the United States 
are in charge of British consular officials. The majority 
of duties levied by the Egyptian tariff are ad valorem and 
call for no remark. 

Finland. — Articles specifically named in the tariff are 
dutiable on the basis of gross weight. All other articles 
pay duty according to the table of tare allowances an- 
nexed to the tariff, or when no tare has been established, 
on the basis of net weight. A new tariff has been in 
force in Finland since April 1, 1919, under which certain 
specified machinery and other articles are subject to an 
ad valorem duty. In view of the prevailing conditions at 
the present time the consular regulations and those of the 
steamship companies should be investigated and fol- 
lowed. The climate of Finland may be described as simi- 
lar to that of eastern Canada. Helsingfors is an up-to- 
date port, with modern facilities, reached by direct sail- 
ings from New York, as are from time to time other Fin- 
nish ports. Packing requires no unusual attention, ex- 
cept as specific instructions may be given by importers. 

France. — Transportation and climatic conditions in 
France are comparable to those in the United States. 
Landing facilities at the ports are of the best. Goods 
must be packed for ocean shipment and this means good, 
strong, well-protected, cases or crates. Before packing: 
or making shipment the consul general of France should 
be consulted in reference to the latest customs rulings 
obtaining. Many changes have been made in the past 
year and it is impossible to foretell further changes in 
view of internafional trade conditions. The various ship- 
ping companies likewise have certain regulations which 
should be investigated and followed. 

French regulations with respect to the importation of 
pharmaceutical preparations, jewelry and other articles 
of gold, silver, or platinum are very strict and should 



CUSTOMS REGULATIONS AND PACKING 263 

be carefully investigated. Information with respect to 
these and other regulations may be obtained from French 
consular officials or from the offices of the French High 
Commission in New York City. 

French Guiana. — Freight, to reach this colony, must 
be transhipped en route. The climate is tropical, land- 
ing facilities and interior transportation conditions prim- 
itive. Packing should be thoroughly waterproof, sturdy, 
but preferably in cases of not excessive weight. The con- 
sular regulations governing shipments to that country 
are identical with those governing shipments to France. 
French consuls are sources of information regarding the 
colony. 

French Indo-China. — The consular regulations gov- 
erning shipments to French Indo-China are identical with 
those governing shipments to France. Packing must be 
prepared to meet all climatic and shipping hazards. The 
colony lies in the tropics and freight is usually tran- 
shipped once, or oftener, en route. General conditions 
may be likened to those described under China. Consuls 
of France may be asked as to conditions in the colony. 

French Somaliland. — The port of Djibouti is practi- 
cally a free port, largely notable as the port of entry 
for Abyssinia. Goods must be packed to withstand the 
tropical climate and all hazards of transportation. In 
the absence of direct steamship lines, freight has to be 
transhipped en route and traverses the torrid waters of 
the Red Sea. There are no official restrictions as to 
marks or weights, but the regulations of the steamship 
companies should be investigated. The interests of the 
colony are in the hands of consuls of France. 

French West Indies. — The French colonies in the 
West Indies consist of the island of Guadeloupe, the 
smaller islands of Les Saintes, Desirade, St. Barthelemy, 
the Marie Galante Islands and half of the island of St. 
Martin, all dependencies of Guadeloupe and the island 
of Martinique. The interests of these islands are cared 
for by French consular officials, to whom special inquiries 
may be addressed. 



264 EXPORT PACKING 

The climate of all these, islands is subtropical, and 
they are subject to the heavy rains characteristic of the 
West Indies. Guadeloupe and Martinique are, served by 
direct steamers from New York and other American 
ports, the smaller islands being ordinarily reached by 
transhipment to smaller coasting vessels. Packing 
should be able to withstand the hazards incident upon 
transhipment and rough handling, and adequate water- 
proof protection should always be given. French con- 
sular regulations apply to shipments to the French West 
Indies. The regulations of the steamship companies 
should be investigated. 

Germany. — Climatic conditions in Germany are simi- 
lar to those obtaining in the northern United States and 
this is likewise normally true of excellent railway trans- 
portation and most modern port conditions. There are 
numerous direct steamer connections. Customs require- 
ments should in each instance be investigated until con- 
ditions are more clearly defined and stabilized than at 
present. Under the former German tariff, articles on 
which the rate of duty did not exceed 6 marks per 100 
kilos were dutiable on the basis of gross weight; while 
on articles subject to a higher rate of duty a tare allow- 
ance based upon a fixed schedule was provided. 

Greece. — Goods shipped to Greece must be well packed 
to withstand hazards of maritime and land transporta- 
tion. The climate does not offer difficulties for the 
packer, being similar to that of our own South Atlantic 
States. Duty is levied, with a few exceptions, on legal 
net weight. There are no government restrictions as to 
marks, weights, etc., but the different steamship com- 
panies have certain regulations of their own which should 
be followed. 

There are steamship lines direct from New York to 
Piraeus (the port of Athens) Patras and Salonica, but a 
large part of the cargo for other ports of Greece is tran- 
shipped there or elsewhere en route and these tran- 
shipments must be taken into account in preparing suit- 
able packing. Cargo is taken ashore in lighters. 



CUSTOMS REGULATIONS AND PACKING 265 

Guatemala. — Climatic conditions in Guatemala vary 
from tropical to temperate. Direct steamers from the 
United States reach both Caribbean and Pacific ports. 
Goods must be packed well to withstand transhipment by 
lighters and very primitive methods of interior transpor- 
tation in the many districts not reached by the single 
railway. Pack mules are in common use. 

Merchandise is dutiable either on the basis of net 
weight or on the basis of weight including packing with 
the exception of outer containers, or on the basis of gross 
weight, as may be provided by the customs tariff. If 
merchandise which is dutiable on weight including pack- 
ing is imported loose in an .outer container, the weight 
of the outer container is not included in the weight sub- 
ject to duty. If merchandise which is dutiable on the 
basis of weight including packing is imported in the same 
container with merchandise dutiable on the basis of gross 
weight, the merchandise dutiable on gross weight is sub- 
ject to duty on the basis of weight including packing, with 
the addition of one-fourth the duty so levied in compen- 
sation for the weight of the container. With respect 
to wrapping, only oil cloth and tarpaulin are considered 
a part of the packing and cloth wrapping must be de- 
clared for duty. The customs authorities at Guatemala 
impose a fine on packages containing merchandise subject 
to different rates of duty. It is, therefore, desirable that 
the exporter obtain complete packing instructions from 
the importer in Guatemala. 

The exporter should consider carefully the nature of 
the goods and whether the duty is based on gross or net 
weight; a custom tariff of Guatemala should be at hand 
for reference. It is not enough that the goods be well 
and carefully packed ; the packing must be done with ref- 
erence to the tariff situation. 

Packages may be marked with stencil or brush. 
Weights need not appear on packages, but each package 
must be numbered. A different number must be put on 
each package in the same shipment and these numbers 
must correspond with those given in the consular invoice. 



266 EXPORT PACKING 

The Guatemalan government imposes strict regula- 
tions with respect to the importation of telephone and tel- 
egraph apparatus and pharmaceutical preparations. 
These can be obtained from the consul general of that 
country in New York City. 

Haiti. — The same general statements made with refer- 
ence to the Dominican Republic apply with equal force to 
Haiti as to climate, interior transportation and packing 
protection. Goods destined for this country should be 
well and securely packed to resist every imaginable haz- 
ard. There are direct steamers from New York to the 
principal ports of the republic but lighterage and wharf- 
age facilities are bad. 

Merchandise on which, under the Haitian tariff, duties 
are assessed on the basis of weight, is dutiable on net 
weight. 

Packages may be marked with stencil or brush and 
must bear consecutive numbers, the net weight in pounds, 
the countermarks, and the name or initials of consignees. 

Hawaiian Islands. — Honolulu is reached by direct 
steamers from San Francisco. Freight is landed directly 
on the wharves, as a rule, and general facilities are good. 
There are no restrictions as to marks except those pre- 
scribed by the different steamship companies. The cli- 
mate is subtropical. Information relating to the islands 
may be obtained from the Bureau of Insular Affairs, 
Washington, D. C, for it should not be forgotten that 
the islands are not " foreign' ' but are a part of the United 
States, and no consideration of customs regulations is 
called for, so far as they may affect packing. 

Holland. — Transportation and climatic conditions are 
similar to those obtaining in the United States. Fre- 
quent direct steamers reach Rotterdam and Amsterdam, 
landing facilities as well as railway and canal services 
are most modern. There are no restrictions as to weight 
and marks except such as are prescribed by the various 
shipping companies. Nearly all duties assessed by the 
Dutch tariff are low and goods which pay duty on the 
basis of weight are dutiable on their legal net weight. 



CUSTOMS REGULATIONS AND PACKING 267 

Honduras. — Goods must be packed to resist severe 
conditions of transhipment, landing and most primitive 
interior transportation. The climate is chiefly tropical, 
varying to temperate according to elevation above the 
sea. 

All goods are dutiable on the basis of gross weight; 
goods subject to different rates of duty may be packed 
in one container without penalty. 

There are direct steamers from New York and New 
Orleans to some of the ports in the Caribbean coast. 
Goods shipped to Tegucigalpa and the interior of Hon- 
duras come either direct by steamer from San Francisco 
to Amapala, or from New York via Panama by tran- 
shipment to Amapala. Here they are reshipped to San 
Lorenzo, a small port near Amapala, and thence to the 
interior by ox-cart. It has heretofore required from 8 
to 12 days for the freight to reach the capital after leav- 
ing the coast, but it is understood that better service is 
lately available. Cargo is often handled in an extremely 
rough manner, especially on the Pacific side, although 
American companies operating to the Caribbean ports 
offer fairly good facilities. 

After the goods are landed comes the long jolting in 
the ox-cart for many days, and then a journey on mule- 
back to reach the many points where there are no roads, 
which will discover every possible weakness and com- 
plete damage that was started in earlier stages of the 
voyage. Furthermore, the rainy season lasts from five 
to six months, and during this time it rains hard and fre- 
quently. The best of waterproof protection is essential. 

The statements in reference to freight also apply to 
parcel post shipments, the mail being transported on 
muleback from the north and south coasts, a trip of from 
three to six days. Eivers have to be crossed, rains are 
frequent, and the ropes lashing the packages to the mules 
have to be drawn tight. It takes from six weeks to sev- 
eral months before an importer in the interior of Hon- 
duras gets his goods, and it is vitally important that these 
goods arrive in good shape after this long lapse of time. 



268 EXPORT PACKING 

Goods to be consumed in the port towns may be packed 
in large cases, preferably not to exceed 220 pounds in 
weight, but goods for the interior must be packed to 
meet the transportation facilities. If a package weighs 
150 pounds a mule can carry only one, and this must be 
placed on the backbone of the animal. Two packages of 
125 pounds each, however, can be strapped one on each 
side. 

Packing for Honduras is a very intricate problem 
in view of the assessment of duties on the gross weight 
of the packed merchandise, indicating the desirability of 
the lightest possible containers, while rough treatment in 
transit and the crudest of handling and transportation 
facilities demand amply stout and waterproof protection. 

India. — Shipments to India must be prepared to meet 
the extreme hazards of a most tropical climate in addi- 
tion to passing en route through the hottest waters of 
the globe. Direct steamers from New York to Pacific 
coast ports may always be found for shipping to Bom- 
bay and Calcutta, sometimes for other Indian ports also. 
There are piers and quays at some of the principal ports, 
but even in such ports cargo is usually landed by lighters 
and handled by unskilled and careless native labor. Rail- 
ways connect the leading cities of India, but points off 
the railway lines are reached by bullock-cart. However, 
this need give the ordinary snipper no concern, since 
repacking for the remote interior, except in the case of 
special machinery, is always undertaken by the large im- 
porters in the principal cities. 

A large number of articles imported into India are 
dutiable at the rate of 7% per cent ad valorem, and the 
Indian tariff likewise provides a large free list. Certain 
of the steamship companies require that the gross weight 
in pounds be marked on packages destined to India and 
Ceylon, and these and other regulations should be care- 
fully investigated. 

Both India and Ceylon have Merchandise Marks Acts 
which provide that all goods made or produced beyond 
the limits of the United Kingdom and British India, must 



CUSTOMS REGULATIONS AND PACKING 269 

arrive in India with the names or trade marks on them 
accompanied by a definite indication of the countries of 
origin, which must be shown in letters as large or con- 
spicuous as any letter in the name or trade mark and 
in the same language and characters as the name or 
trade mark. 

The following summary of the provisions of the act 
and suggestions as to procedure were compiled by a for- 
mer American consul at Bombay: 

"It is generally assumed, under the provisions of the 
Indian merchandise-mark legislation, that whenever the 
English language is used, either in trademarks or in de- 
scriptions of imported goods, the country of origin is the 
United Kingdom. Otherwise there is intent to deceive and 
violate the law, unless there is a clear counter indication 
that the goods were manufactured elsewhere. There- 
fore, in the case of goods manufactured in the United 
States, the counter indication, 'Made in the U. S. A.,' 
should appear in clear letters. It is held insufficient to 
mark simply 'U. S. A.' If goods from the United 
States are marked with the name of a city which 
might also be the name of a city or place in the 
United Kingdom or British India, the name should be 
accompanied by further names to indicate that it is in the 
United States. For instance, Boston in Massachusetts 
should be accompanied by the name 'United States' or 
by the initials 'U. S. A.' or by the word 'Massachusetts.' 

"All counterfeit trade-marks and all false descrip- 
tions of any sort are strictly forbidden in the case of 
goods imported into India. The expression 'trade-mark' 
means in India any trade-mark, which, either with or 
without registration, is protected by law in any British 
possession or foreign State ; and the expression 'counter- 
feit' means a deceptive resemblance, which need not be 
exact, of one thing to another thing. A false trade de- 
scription means a trade description which is untrue in a 
material respect as regards the goods to which it is ap- 
plied. 

"Piece goods in India, ordinarily sold by length or by 



270 • EXPORT PACKING 

the piece, should have the length in standard yards 
stamped conspicuously in English numerals on each 
piece. Piece goods include woolen goods of all kinds, and 
the following cotton goods : Cambrics, checks,. spots and 
stripes, chudders, chudder dhooties, dhooties, domestics, 
doorias, drills, jaconets, jeans, lappets, lawns, lenos, long- 
cloths, madapollams, mulls, muslins, nainsooks, printers, 
prints, sarries, scarfs (eklai), sheetings, shirtings, tan- 
jibs, twills, T cloths, and Mexicans. Other classes of 
piece goods are not detained if unstamped. The same 
applies to unstamped cotton and woolen piece goods im- 
ported for the personal use of individuals or private 
associations, and not for trade purposes. A trade de- 
scription of length stamped on gray, white, or colored 
cotton piece goods is not deemed to be false in a mate- 
rial respect, unless where a single length is stamped, the 
description exceeds actual length by more than 4 inches 
in pieces stamped as 10 yards long, and 18 inches in pieces 
stamped as above 47 yards long, provided that the av- 
erage length of the goods in question does not measure 
less than the stamped length. Although no trade descrip- 
tion of width seems to be necessary, if one appears it is 
not considered false if it exceeds the actual width by one- 
half inch in pieces stamped as 40 inches or less in width, 
or 1 inch in pieces stamped as 50 inches or more in width, 
provided the average width is not less than the stamped 
width. 

"In cases where indication of origin is required to be 
marked, when the English language is used for goods 
made outside of the United Kingdom, the counter indica- 
tion should be adjacent on the same label, or part of the 
covering of the goods, as the case may be, to which the 
name, trade-mark, or trade description is applied. It 
should not be on a separate label, or otherwise detachable 
from the application of the name, trade-mark, or trade 
description itself; and it should be applied no less in- 
delibly than the latter. It should be repeated for all appli- 
cations of the name, trade-mark, or false trade descrip- 
tion, except when the latter are reproduced in such close 



CUSTOMS REGULATIONS AND PACKING 271 

proximity that one prominent counter indication will suf- 
fice to cover all. If different languages or characters, 
English or Indian, are used for the names or included in 
the trade-marks, the counter indication should be re- 
peated in each language. 

" Statements, descriptions or numerals, on labels or 
tickets applied to boxes, cartons, parcels, or other pack- 
ages, which are manifestly intended only for the purpose 
of identifying articles for the convenience of dealers and 
shopkeeepers, and are not specially intended to attract 
the eye of the purchaser, are not treated as trade de- 
scriptions; such for instance, as on bundles of hosiery, 
'Hose, brown merino, size 10;' on shoes, 'Enameled 
leather, men's No. 6;' on hats, 'Brown felt, hard, No. 7,' 
so long as such marks or descriptions are not on the 
goods themselves. 

"Counter indications are required in connection with 
words in any Indian language, or letters or numerals in 
Indian character, or other marks or devices, as represen- 
tations of Indian deities or emblems which might lead 
persons to believe that the goods were made or produced 
in British India, the same principle being thus applied 
as to goods made or produced outside the United King- 
dom but using the English language in trade-marks and 
descriptions. 

"Samples or patterns of goods, which are readily dis- 
tinguishable as such and valueless in themselves, are not 
subject to the legal provisions regarding marking of 
origin. 

"Although any formal registration of marks, names, 
or initials is prohibited in Indian custom houses, yet 
goods are excluded if it should be shown that an attempt 
has been made to counterfeit some established mark or 
other indication that is well known to the customs of- 
ficials. There is at present considerable agitation in 
India for a law requiring registration for trade-marks, 
and punishment for counterfeiting registered trade- 
marks; and it seems likely that there may soon be one 
to that effect. In regard to dealing with various false 



272 EXPORT PACKING 

descriptions, customs officials are instructed that there 
should be due consideration given to the provision that a 
trade description to be false must be ' untrue in a material 
respect. ' When there are indications that goods are of a 
certain standard composition, such as the letters B. P. 
(British Pharmacopoeia) in the case of drugs, the de- 
scription would be regarded as false unless composition 
was in accordance with the standard. ' ' 

More particular and detailed instructions as to the 
marking of merchandise and trade description may be ob- 
tained by a study of the Merchandise Marks Manual, a 
book officially published by the Superintendent of Gov- 
ernment Printing at Calcutta, which reviews the various 
laws and regulations, contains many special rulings and 
examples as to their proper application. The advice and 
instruction of local importers should, in all cases, be fol- 
lowed exactly since the interpretation of the Merchandise 
Marks Laws, especially as regards trade description, is, 
to a large extent, dependent upon the individual judgment 
or ideas of individual collectors of customs at various 
ports, some of whom are inclined to be liberal and some 
not. Local firms which have had considerable experience 
with more or less involved questions concerning the 
marking of merchandise and with local rulings covering 
these questions, are, as a general rule, able to provide 
clearer instructions than those which may be obtained 
from the Merchandise Marks Manual. 

Italy. — There are no special difficulties with respect 
to climate or interior transportation to be observed in 
preparing shipments for Italy, but packing should pro- 
vide against the danger of pilfering and be able to with- 
stand the hazards of ocean transportation. Direct steam- 
ers reach all principal ports, where landing facilities are 
unusually good. Interior railway services are modern 
and satisfactory. The climate may be likened to that of 
California. 

With few exceptions duty is assessed, on articles sub- 
ject to a rate of duty less than 20 lire, per 100 kilos, on 
the basis of gross weight; on articles paying a higher 



CUSTOMS REGULATIONS AND PACKING 273 

rate of duty, duty is assessed either on the basis of actual 
or legal net weight. There are at present many customs 
restrictions in force concerning which information may 
be obtained from the Italian consul general, New York 
City. 

On shipments of tobacco weights must be marked on 
packages, and containers of medicinal products must 
specify the dose and the chief ingredients. The steam- 
ship companies also have certain requirements which 
should be investigated and followed. 

Italian Somaliland (Eritrea). — Duties are, with few 
exceptions, ad valorem. There are no official restrictions 
on marks or weights, but the regulations of the steamship 
companies should be investigated. There are no direct 
steamers and all freight must be transhipped en route. 
Packing should be of such a nature as to withstand all 
hazards of rough transportation and an exceedingly trop- 
ical climate. Italian consuls may be asked as to special 
information regarding this colony. 

Jamaica. — The climate of Jamaica is subtropical. 
Some of the principal ports of the island are reached by 
direct steamers, others are served by transhipping to 
small steam or sailing coastal vessels, involving repeated 
risks through additional handling. Further damage may 
be incurred in transfers to custom houses which are not 
located immediately on the landing stages. Kailways and 
good highways reach the interior. No restrictions are 
prescribed as to marks and weights of packages. The 
steamship companies, however, have certain require- 
ments which should be investigated and followed. Ade- 
quate waterproof protection to packages should always 
be given, in view of the frequency of exposure to rain. 

All commercial invoices should state that the cost of 
the outer packing is included in the cost of the goods, for 
otherwise duty will be assessed on the packing or con- 
tainers. The custom laws provide that "in respect of 
goods liable to duty on the value thereof, the value of all 
outside and inside coverings or receptacles containing 
such goods, together with the value of all labels, wrap- 



274 EXPORT PACKING 

pers, or other attachments, shall be deemed to be a por- 
tion of the value of such goods for duty, and shall be 
included in such value." Even in the case of rated or 
free goods the packing or coverings are subject to duty 
when they are apparently designed for other use than 
the importation of the goods, and the packages of rated 
goods are generally liable to duty. Moreover, when a 
package contains ad valorum goods and free goods the 
outer package shall be liable to the same rate of duty as 
the ad valorum goods. 

Japan. — Goods must be packed to withstand severe 
handling. Climatic conditions, like those of our own 
northern states, offer no difficulties. There are no gov- 
ernment restrictions as to marks, weights, etc., although 
the steamship companies have regulations of their own 
which should be investigated and followed. As a rule the 
net weight is taken as a base for calculating duties on 
commodities which are dutiable by weight. However, 
raw materials are mostly duty free; half manufactured 
articles pay light duties; on manufactured articles the 
duties range from 15 to 50 per cent. There are direct 
sailings for some of the principal Japanese ports from 
New York and from our own Pacific ports. Japan boasts 
good railway and coasting steamer services. Special 
packing is, as a rule, only required when so ordered. 

Jugo-Slavia. — Transportation facilities in the new 
state of Jugo-Slavia are not yet in a normal condition. 
There are comparatively insufficient railway facilities, 
but imports are usually repacked by local merchants for 
interior distribution. The climate is temperate. Under 
the former Serbian tariff merchandise dutiable at a rate 
of less than 10 dinars per 100 kilos is, with few excep- 
tions, subject to duty on the basis of gross weight. Mer- 
chandise subject to a higher rate of duty than 10 dinars 
per 100 kilos is, with few exceptions, subject to duty on 
the basis of legal net weight with specified tare allowance 
fixed under a tare schedule. In view of the prevailing 
conditions the consular regulations and those of the 
steamship companies should be investigated and followed. 



CUSTOMS REGULATIONS AND PACKING 275 

Madagascar. — The French tariff, with certain excep- 
tions, and French consular regulations apply. Goods are 
discharged in lighters at Tamatave. Packing should be 
of such a nature as to withstand tropical climate and all 
hazards of transportation, including transhipping en 
route as there are rarely direct sailings from the United 
States. General information may be sought from consuls 
of France. 

Madeira Islands. — The customs regulations given un- 
der Portugal apply. The climate is tropical. In the ab- 
sence of direct steamship connections, transhipping en 
route is required and freight is usually landed by lighter, 
thus further increasing the handling of packages. The 
islands are a possession of Portugal and consuls of that 
country may be asked for general information. 

Mauritius. — The tariff assesses specific duties based 
on weight and other units. Goods should be packed to 
withstand tropical climate and all hazards of transporta- 
tion. There are no official restrictions as to marks and 
weights. As there are seldom direct sailings from Amer- 
ican ports, transhipment must be expected and provided 
against. The island is a British possession and infor- 
mation may be sought from consuls of the United 
Kingdom. 

Mexico. — Goods for Mexico are shipped by direct all- 
water, all-rail or by combined rail and water route. 
Goods destined for interior points not reached by rail- 
road are transported by men or animals, and conse- 
quently the method of packing depends on the route se- 
lected, and the location of the point of destination. The 
climate of Mexico varies from that of the tropics, along 
the coast and in the south, to that of the temperate zone, 
in the cities situated in the central tableland, several 
thousand feet above sea level. Again transhipment con- 
ditions vary greatly, Vera Cruz and Tampico, on the east 
coast, although not good as ports or with perfect equip- 
ment, having vastly superior shipping and landing facili- 
ties to the open roadsteads of Progreso, other minor 
ports of the east coast and all those on the west coast, 



276 EXPORT PACKING 

where the landing of cargo may be both difficult and 
hazardous, involving great risks to packing. 

The duty on merchandise dutiable by weight is levied 
on net, legal, or gross weight, according to the provisions 
of the tariff. No penalty is imposed for mixed packing, 
if the merchandise is declared properly. The following 
definitions and rules are taken from the general regula- 
tions for the application of the tarifT : 

"By net weight is meant the weight of the goods alone 
without inner or outer packing. 

"By legal weight is meant the weight of the goods 
together with that of their inner packing, such as wrap- 
pers, receptacles, cardboard and wooden boxes, tins, etc., 
inclosed in the outer packing case. When goods dutiable 
on legal weight are not inclosed in inner packages, but 
in one receptacle only, the weight of the goods alone will 
be considered as the legal weight. In establishing the 
legal weight no account will be taken of the straw or 
shavings in which the inner packages are placed or of 
the weight of the outer receptacle. 

"By gross weight is meant the weight of the goods 
with all their outside and inside coverings, without de- 
ducting the weight of the hoops, etc., used for packing. 
When a package contains different goods dutiable on 
gross weight, the customs shall, conformably to article 
50 of the customs regulations, determine the tare in pro- 
portion to the legal weight assigned to each kind of goods. 
"Goods dutiable on gross weight imported without any 
kind of packing or packed in a material which is also 
dutiable shall pay duty on the total weight of the goods.' ' 

The rules regarding mixed packing are given as fol- 
lows in the customs regulations: 

"When a package contains several kinds of merchan- 
dise, subject to different rates of duty, including some 
dutiable on gross weight, the declaration in the invoice 
should indicate, in addition to the total weight of the 
package, the legal weight of each class of merchandise 
contained therein, in order to facilitate a proportional 
division of the gross weight. This declaration of the legal 



CUSTOMS REGULATIONS AND PACKING 277 

weight shall in no way affect the declaration of net 
weight, unit, pair, thousand, or measure required for the 
liquidation of the duty on the merchandise not dutiable 
on gross weight. 

" Shippers may pack in one case several parcels, 
boxes, bags, bales, or other packages containing the same 
class of goods, provided that they specify in the consular 
invoice the number of packages contained in each bundle, 
bale, or case. Failure to comply with this requirement 
or to furnish said information within the time limit al- 
lowed by law is punishable by a fine not to exceed 50 
pesos. This information is not required in the case of 
the following classes of merchandise : 

"1. Bulky articles which are commonly shipped 
packed together, such as iron and steel bars, tubing, sheet 
metal, shingles and staves, wooden and metal casks, 
buckets, parts of machinery, and similar merchandise, 
and articles free of duty. 

' ' 2. Tins or interior packing of the merchandise con- 
tained in each package. 

"3. Pieces of cloth packed in bales or boxes ; bottles 
or casks containing articles of food, drugs, perfumery, 
etc., and, in general, all small packages, bags, boxes, or 
other kind of receptacle contained in one strong 
package. ' ' 

Packages may be marked either with a stencil or 
brush. Weight need not be marked on the packages. 

Every package must be marked with the name, initial 
or mark of consignee and the destination in full. The 
packages of each consignment should be marked consecu- 
tively. If possible, goods paying different duties should 
not be packed together, that is, goods assessed on gross 
weight should not be packed with goods assessed on legal 
or net weight. 

It is of the utmost importance that goods be packed 
in accordance with any special instructions that the im- 
porter may give. For example, instructions that certain 
articles be knocked down and the different parts securely 
boxed in certain size packages, and no package to weigh 



278 EXPORT PACKING 

over a certain amount, may seem irksome to follow, but 
if final transportation of the shipment must be made by 
mule or burro, machinery weighing two or three tons- 
cannot well be taken apart at a small interior railroad 
station. The routing of shipments is also important. 
Goods shipped by sea should be more strongly boxed and 
be better protected by waterproofing against sea spray 
and tropical humidity, than goods routed by all-rail lines. 

The following is a condensation of a paper read by 
Mr. H. H. Miller, of Torreon, Mexico, at the trade con- 
ference held at Mexico City early this year: 

After goods or merchandise of any kind have passed 
through all the various stages from the raw material to 
the finished product and have been sold they must then 
be packed, billed, and shipped to the purchaser. If this 
is not done so that they reach their final destination in 
perfect condition, the work of manufacturing and mar- 
keting them will be either partly or entirely lost. 

A Torreon importer sends the following list of in- 
structions with his orders to the United States: 

1. All boxes must be strapped or wired. 

2. All cartons containing glass shipped by freight 
should be crated.. 

"3. Put large stickers on glassware containers: 
1 Glass-Vidrio. ' 

"4. Machinery having small parts exposed must be 
boxed. 

"5. All other machinery must be crated. 

"6. Number packages consecutively. 

"7. Mark gross, tare, and net weight on each 
package. 

"8. Send original of bill of lading, packing list, and 
manifest and copy of invoice to customs broker named. 

"9. Send original of invoice and copies of manifest 
and packing list to me here. 

"10. Mark plainly on manifest if shipment is to be 
forwarded by freight or express, according to my in- 
structions. 

"11. All shipments should be marked to me at 






CUSTOMS REGULATIONS AND PACKING 279 

border point and in care of the customs broker named. 

"12. Do not split shipments.' ' 

There is a reason for each of these instructions, and 
failure to comply with any one of them may mean de- 
lay or extra expense to the purchaser. 

Discussion of Instructions. — Comment on the first 
three is not necessary. Most reliable houses comply 
with them even if they are not included in the shipping 
instructions. 

Nos. 4 and 5. — Aside from protection against break- 
age and loss of pieces, there is another reason for box- 
ing or crating machines. In Mexico an extra 50 per cent 
is added to the regular freight rates on all machinery in 
less than carload lots that is not boxed or crated. 

No. 6. — Numbering the boxes or packages is very im- 
portant. It is the only way to check them against the 
packing list, which should be sent to the customs broker 
who is to pass the shipment across the border and for- 
ward it. 

A great many shippers do not seem to understand 
the nature of a packing list and a manifest, or the neces- 
sity of making them, so it might be well to give a little 
time to the details of forwarding a shipment from a 
border point to the interior of Mexico. In the old days 
the railroads and express companies could receive ship- 
ments consigned to Mexico and give receipts or bills of 
lading from their point of origin in the United States 
to their final destination. Now it is different, and every- 
thing sent either by freight or express must be reshipped 
from the border point the same as a new shipment origi- 
nating there. 

If a shipment is made to John Jones at Torreon, it 
is not sent direct to Torreon, but in care of a designated 
customs broker at El Paso, Eagle Pass, or other port of 
entry. The bill of lading, packing list, manifest, and 
copy of invoice must also be sent to this same customs 
broker, so that he will be in a position to apply for a 
consular invoice, comply with all the requirements of 
the custom-house, and at the same time act intelligently 



280 EXPORT PACKING 

and with despatch for the consignor and the consignee. 

When a shipment reaches the border, if it is a full 
carload, the broker may put up a $2,000 bond guaran- 
teeing the safe return of the car to the United States and 
get permission to have it switched to the Mexican side, 
where the contents are transferred to another car. If 
it is less than a carload it is carried across in trucks. 
A consular invoice, the packing list, manifest, and copy 
of invoice goes with the goods to the custom-house. 

At the custom-house the officials are supposed to open 
each box, inspect and weigh the contents, check them 
against packing lists and manifests, and assess the duties. 
As a rule they do not open all, if the papers and docu- 
ments are made out properly so they .can obtain the 
necessary data from them instead of from an actual in- 
spection of the packages themselves. If no packing lists 
or manifests are furnished, it is absolutely necessary to 
open and unpack everything in order to get the proper 
weight and values and figure the duties. This takes some 
time, and there is always danger of small or fragile ar- 
ticles being 1 broken or lost in the operation. From the 
custom-house they go to the freight or express office, 
where they are reshipped to their final destination. 

Explanation of Terms. — A packing list gives the 
number of each box or package in the shipment and a 
list of its contents. A manifest gives the weight, kind 
of material, and value of each article in the packages. A 
good form frequently used which is an invoice, packing 
list, and manifest all in one, is more or less as follows : 

Chicago, 111., November 15, 1919. 
Sold to H. H. Miller, Torreon, Coahuila, Mexico. 
Shipped to H. H. Miller, care of T. J. Woodside, El 
Paso, Tex.; by freight to El Paso; from Juarez to 
Torreon by express. 
Box No. 1. Gross weight, 75 kilos. 
Net weight, 65 kilos. 

1 steel miter box, steel and brass, 40 kilos. . .$12 

2 dozen 12-inch files, steel, 12 kilos 15 

3 dozen hack-saw blades, steel, 13 kilos 9 



CUSTOMS REGULATIONS AND PACKING 281 

Marking of Weights Necessary. — No. 7. — Mark- 
ing the gross, tare, and net weight on the package is for 
the convenience of the forwarding agent and the customs 
house employees. It very often saves time and extra 
work and should not be overlooked. 

The metric system is the legal standard for weight 
in Mexico and is the one used for figuring the duties, so 
it is better to give all weights in kilos if possible. A few 
houses give the weight in kilos, for the benefit of the 
customs house, and also in pounds, for the convenience of 
themselves and customers. Weights given in pounds only 
entail some work in figuring their metric equivalent, but 
can be used and are far better than no weights at all. 

Buyers sometimes instruct to give gross, net and 
legal weights of each article, as duties on some classes 
of goods are based on the gross weight, some on the net, 
and others on the legal weight. It is rather hard to give 
a set rule covering this point and the billing clerk should 
be able to judge by the nature of the articles themselves 
what weights should be given. In many cases, aside from 
the weight of the packing case, there are no gross or 
legal weights to be considered. Legal weight means the 
weight of the article itself and of its container or imme- 
diate wrapping, as bottles of medicine or canned goods. 
In this class of goods the legal weight should be given 
and marked as "legal." 

Some European houses have experts on the customs 
regulations of the various countries and give the classi- 
fication each article in the shipment should come under 
and the rate of duty it should pay. This is a great con- 
venience to the forwarding agent and to the man who 
receives the goods. In case of a doubt at the customs 
house as to the proper classification it enables the broker 
to select and insist on the one that is most favorable, 
and helps the purchaser to check his customs sheets and 
see if any excessive charges have been collected. 

Consignment of Shipments. — Nos. 8 and 9. — When 
shipments are consigned to a customs broker at a border 
point and are to be reshipped by him, he must have the 



282 EXPORT PACKING 

original bill of lading. When we get back to the old style 
of business and a through bill of lading is given from 
point of origin to final destination, then the original must 
be sent to the consignee and a copy to the broker. The 
broker needs only a copy of the invoice, but should have 
originals of packing list and manifest. In case all three 
are made in one, like the form given above, a copy to the 
broker is all right. Considerable trouble has often been 
had on account of shippers sending original papers to 
the broker when he should have only the copies, and vice 
versa. If exporters would only look over the shipping 
instructions, they would avoid many delays and other in- 
conveniences in Mexico and at the border. 

No. 10. — Very often shipments are sent to the border 
by freight and forwarded from there to the interior by 
express. Sometimes it happens that something is wanted 
in a rush and the broker forwards it by freight, and at 
other times heavy machinery for which there is no hurry 
is sent by express. Generally this is because the broker 
has no specific instructions and uses his own judgment, 
which at times is wrong. If shipping instructions are 
given with the order relative to forwarding from the 
border, they should be noted clearly on the manifest that 
is sent to the broker. 

No. 11. — Sometimes a broker receives shipments con- 
signed direct to him and he does not know for whom they 
are intended. He must write for this information or 
wait till an inquiry or complaint is made. Everything 
shipped to him should also bear the name of the final 
consignee. 

No. 12. — It is very important not to split the ship- 
ments as it causes extra trouble and expense. 

New Zealand. — Terminal and transportation condi- 
tions in New Zealand are very good. There are direct 
sailings from New York and San Francisco for some of 
the principal ports where freight is transhipped by 
excellent coastal boats to minor ports. It must be remem- 
bered that goods destined to New Zealand as to all of the 
southern hemisphere must cross the equator and pass 



CUSTOMS REGULATIONS AND PACKING 283 

through the tropical belt on their voyage there. The 
climate of New Zealand is temperate. There are no 
official restrictions as to marks or weights, but certain of 
the steamship companies have their own regulations 
which should be carefully investigated. The interests of 
New Zealand in the United States are cared for by 
British consular officials, from whom the official regula- 
tions may be obtained. No unusual attention or special 
packing is required for shipments to New Zealand, except 
as specific instructions may be received from consignees. 

New 'Zealand laws are very strict with respect to 
labeling of food and pharmaceutical products and the 
marking of footwear. The following quotation from the 
Footwear Regulation Act of 1913 contains the most 
important requirements of the act: 

"No person shall manufacture for sale, or sell, or 
offer or expose for sale any boots or shoes the soles of 
which consist wholly or partly of leather, or any imitation 
of leather, or of any material having the appearance of 
leather, unless : 

" (a) The soles thereof are of leather without admix- 
ture or addition other than materials used for filling 
spaces, shanks, or rubber outsoles, or in the case of 
ladies ' fancy or evening footwear, of heels of wood or 
celluloid; or 

"(b) A statement of the material or materials com- 
posing the soles thereof is conspicuously and legibly 
stamped upon or impressed into the outer surface of the 
sole of each boot or shoe. ' ' 

In all cases where, in accordance with the Footwear 
Regulation Act, 1913, of New Zealand, it is required that 
a statement of the material or materials composing the 
soles of any boots or shoes be stamped on or impressed 
into the outer surface of the sole, the following rules are 
to be observed : 

"The statement shall be stamped in indelible ink on 
the soles of such boots or shoes and shall be in bold type 
of such size and distinctness that it may be read with ease 
by any person of normal sight at a. distance of at least 
5 feet. 



284 EXPORT PACKING 

"The statement shall be impressed into the soles by 
means of sunk or branded lettering of such size and dis- 
tinctness that it may be read with ease by any person of 
normal sight at a distance of at least 5 feet, or shall be 
embossed on the soles in lettering of like size and 
distinctness." 

The regulations with respect to food products and 
pharmaceutical preparations adopted under the ' ' Sale of 
Food and Drugs Act" of March 4, 1913, apply both to 
imported commodities and those of local manufacture. 
Under this act it is provided that : 

"2. (1) Except as hereinafter otherwise provided, 
it shall not be lawful for any person, after the commence- 
ment of these regulations, to sell any package containing 
any food unless there is legibly and durably marked on 
or attached to that package a statement or label contain- 
ing the following particulars, namely : 

"(a) The name or trade-name, or description of the 
article ; 

"(b) In the case of compounded, mixed, or blended 
foods, words which indicate that the contents are com- 
pounded, mixed, or blended, together with the words 
' imitation,' 'compound/ or * blend,' as the case may 
require ; 

"(c) A statement of the net weight or volume, or of 
the true number, of the contents of any package, and any 
necessary statement regarding grade or quality. Unless 
otherwise specified, the statements required by this para- 
graph shall appear together in the principal label within 
a panel having a light-colored ground in gold-faced 
sans-serif capital types of not less than six points face 
measurement ; 

"(d) The name and address of the manufacturer of 
the article or of the seller thereof, or of the owner of the 
rights of manufacture, or of the agent of any of them; 

"(e) Such other particulars as are required by the 
regulations in Part II hereof to be given in the case of 
any particular article ; 

"(f) Such other particulars as the manufacturer or 



CUSTOMS REGULATIONS AND PACKING 285 

the seller, or the agent of either of them, desires to add. 

" (2) No descriptive matter written on or attached to 
a package which contains any food shall include any com- 
ment on, reference to, or explanation of any statement or 
label required by these regulations to be written on or 
attached to any such package if such comment, reference, 
or explanation directly or by implication contradicts, 
qualifies, or modifies any such statement or the contents 
of such label. 

"3 No label which describes any article of food 
shall include the word 'pure,' or any word of the same 
significance, unless the article is of the prescribed com- 
position, strength, purity, or quality, and unless it is free 
from added foreign substances. 

"4 Notwithstanding anything to the contrary in 
these regulations, words required to' be Written in types 
of size of not less than six points face measurement may 
be written in types of proportionately reduced size when 
the package containing a food or drug for sale is so small 
as to prevent the use of types of the prescribed size." 

The act contains definite regulations with respect to 
the marking, preparation, and condition of purity re- 
quired in a great variety of food and pharmaceutical 
products. It may be found in the "New Zealand Ga- 
zette' ' of March 6, 1913. 

Nicaragua. — Transportation and transhipment con- 
ditions in Nicaragua are of the most primitive type, and 
goods should be packed to withstand every hazard of 
heat, humidity in tropical waters, bad handling and 
exposure to heavy rains during the rainy season. 

Bluefields, on the Caribbean coast, is reached by 
direct steamers from New Orleans ; ports on the Pacific 
side are connected with San Francisco by direct steam- 
ship service. The main port of entry is Corinto, which 
is connected with the capital by rail. There are good 
docks at this port. Apart from these, transhipment is 
necessary. Landing conditions are bad and interior 
transportation crude and rough. Many districts can only 
be reached by mules that can carry two packages of not 



286 EXPORT PACKING 

exceeding 125 pounds each. Freight is transferred from 
and to warehouses on men's backs. 

It is not permitted to pack more than 10 kinds of 
merchandise in one receptacle. If articles subject to 
duty under different tariff classifications are packed in 
one receptacle each different class of goods must be 
packed or wrapped separately, or be in a different bundle, 
at the convenience of the shipper, so that its weight may 
be compared by the customs authorities with that de- 
clared in the invoice and the appropriate duty assessed 
on each class. If this requirement has not been complied 
with by the shipper an additional tax of 5 per cent on the 
tariff appraisement is assessed on the entire contents of 
the package. 

The new Nicaraguan tariff, unlike the old tariff, 
assesses the greater number of duties on net weight. 
This is stated to be the weight of the goods including 
the weight of individual containers, such as cartons and 
so on. Toilet articles, perfumery and cosmetics must be 
packed in the containers in which they are going to be 
retailed, otherwise there will be a surtax of 100 per cent 
levied at the custom house. Packages may be marked 
with either stencil or brush. Weights need not appear 
on packages. 

Norway.— Transportation, landing, and climatic con- 
ditions are in general similar to those of the United 
States, and there are no restrictions as to weights and 
marks other than those of the steamship companies. 
Direct steamers operate between American and Nor- 
wegian ports. Duty on most articles is assessed on the 
basis of legal net weight, but in some instances the weight 
of the outer receptacle only is deducted from the gross 
weight, the weight of the immediate packing being 
included in that subject to duty. 

Panama.— Outside of the Canal Zone, traversed by 
the railway, the Republic of Panama offers only the 
most primitive transportation and terminal facilities 
with very rough handling at every stage. Packing should 
therefore be of the most sturdy character to resist trop- 



CUSTOMS REGULATIONS AND PACKING 287 

ical heat, humidity, perils of land and sea. Landing 
facilities at Colon are excellent and there are direct 
steamships. Most articles imported into Panama are 
subject to ad valorem duties. 

Weights need not be indicated on the packages, which 
may be marked with stencil or brush. 

Paraguay.— Transportation in Paraguay is almost 
exclusively by mule, carts, and boat. All goods for 
Asuncion are transhipped at Montevideo or Buenos 
Aires and all cases for transhipment must be marked 
with the number of the package, the destination, point of 
transhipment and the weight in kilos ; all of which must 
follow the shipping mark. Packages should also be 
marked: "Transito para Paraguay, " in order to avoid 
customs duties in Buenos Aires or Montevideo. The 
packing should be of the most sturdy character and de- 
signed to withstand hot weather, rains and all packing 
hazards, including at least one transhipment and possi- 
bly several. 

Many classes of goods imported into Paraguay are 
dutiable on the weight of the goods and the individual 
container and frequently an effort is made to reduce this 
duty by shipping goods in bulk in a single container. 
Goods so shipped are dutiable on net weight and are sub- 
ject to a surtax of 10 per cent. 

Persia.— Packing should be able to take care of severe 
climatic and transportation hazards by land and sea. The 
greater part of the merchandise imported into Persia 
comes through ports on the Black and Caspian Seas and 
the Persian Gulf, to reach which at least one tranship- 
ment en route is usually required. Overland transpor- 
tation is usually by camel, mule, or sometimes donkey. 
Since mules are commonly more readily available than 
are camels it is recommended that packages be oblong in 
shape, not to exceed 36x24x24 inches, and not weighing 
over 120 to 150 pounds, as mules carry a gross weight 
of 250 to 300 pounds in two packages. Camels in Persia 
can carry up to 400 pounds in two packages of not over 
200 pounds each. There is constant loading, unloading 



288 EXPORT PACKING 

and rough handling, sometimes extending over weeks. 
The climate ranges from temperate, with wintry condi- 
tions in the Black Sea during the season, to tropical. 
There are no restrictions as to weights and marks other 
than those of the steamship companies. Duties are chiefly 
ad valorum or classified. 

Peru.— Conditions of landing and interior transporta- 
tion are very unsatisfactory. Cargo is usually lightered 
to shore, and there are no good harbors except Callao 
and Paita. There are direct steamship lines from the 
United States. The climate of Peru is temperate. Goods 
must be packed strongly against all perils ; facilities are 
primitive and handling rough, and packages must be de- 
signed for transportation (when so ordered, or when des- 
tined for interior points) by llama, burro, porters, etc. 
The load of a llama is regarded as about 100 pounds, 
of a burro 150 to 200 pounds, divided into two packages, 
each half of those weights. 

Duty on articles dutiable by weight may be assessed 
on the basis of gross weight; net weight, which is equiva- 
lent to the weight obtained by deducting tare allowance 
specifically indicated from the gross weight; or on the 
basis of legal weight, which is the weight of the mer- 
chandise, together with that of its packing, but which 
does not include the weight of the outer container. If 
merchandise subject to duty on the basis of gross weight 
is packed in the same container with other merchandise, 
either dutiable on another basis or subject to other rates 
of duty, the customs authorities add 25 per cent to the 
weight of the merchandise dutiable on gross weight, in- 
cluding its immediate packing and a proportionate share 
of the shavings, straw or other packing material. The 
regulations prescribe an addition of 60 per cent to the 
weight, in the case of pianos and beds. Separate duties 
are assessed on receptacles containing free goods as 
well as on those subject to a higher rate of duty than their 
contents. Packages may be marked with stencil or brush 
and should show the gross weight. 

Philippine Islands. — Packing should be designed to 



CUSTOMS REGULATIONS AND PACKING 289 

withstand severe handling and intense tropical heat and 
humidity. The steamship companies ' regulations with 
reference to marking should be strictly followed. There 
are direct steamship lines from both the east and west 
coasts of the United States. Special packing, if and 
when required, is always indicated in instructions re- 
ceived from Philippine importers. The islands being 
American, there are no import duties to be taken into 
consideration as affecting American goods. Information 
regarding the islands is available at the Bureau of In- 
sular Affairs, War Department, Washington, D. C. 

The following Sections of the Philippine Tariff Act 
of 1909 are of interest : 

"Bule 13. (a) Whenever imported merchandise is 
subject to an ad valorem rate of duty, the duty shall be 
assessed upon the actual market value or wholesale price 
of such merchandise, as bought and sold in usual whole- 
sale quantities, at the time of exportation to the Philip- 
pine Islands, in" the principal markets of the country 
from whence imported, and in the condition in which such 
merchandise is there bought and sold for exportation to 
the Philippine Islands, or consigned to the Philippine 
Islands for sale, including the value of all cartons, cases, 
crates, boxes, sacks, and coverings of any kind, and all 
other costs, charges, and expenses incident to placing the 
merchandise in condition, packed ready for shipment to 
the Philippine Islands. 

" (b) Whenever an article is subject to an alternative 
minimum ad valorem rate, the alternative ad valorem 
duty shall be ascertained by applying the corresponding 
ad valorem rate to such merchandise, inclusive of all 
costs and charges mentioned in clause (a) of this rule. 

"(c) The term ' retail package' wherever used in 
this Act shall be held to mean any article, goods, wares, 
or merchandise, together with the holders, containers, 
packages, or packing, in which such article, goods, wares, 
or merchandise is usually held, contained, or packed at 
the time of its sale to the public in usual retail quan- 
tities. 



290 EXPORT PACKING 

" (d) Wherever it is provided in this Act that arti- 
cles, goods, wares, or merchandise shall be dutiable, ' in- 
cluding weight of immediate containers, ' the dutiable 
weight thereof shall be held to be the weight of same, 
together with the weight of the immediate container, 
holder, or packing only: Provided, That wherever in 
this Act the term 'including weight of immediate con- 
tainers ' and the term ' retail package ' are both used in 
the same paragraph or clause, the dutiable weight shall 
be the weight of the retail package. 

* ' (e) Wherever it is provided in this Act that articles, 
goods, wares, or merchandise shall be dutiable by ' gross 
weight,' the dutiable weight thereof shall be held to be 
the weight of same, together with the weight of all con- 
tainers, packages, holders, and packing, of whatsoever 
kind or character, in which said articles, goods, wares, 
and merchandise are contained, held, or packed at the 
time of importation. 

"(f) Articles, goods, wares, or merchandise affixed 
to card-board, cards, paper, wood, or similar common ma- 
terial shall be dutiable together with the weight of such 
packing. 

"(g) The usual tapes, boards, and immediate wrap- 
ping shall be considered as a part of the dutiable weight 
of textiles. 

"(h) No duties shall be assessed on account of the 
usual coverings or holdings of articles, goods, wares, or 
merchandise dutiable otherwise than ad valorem, nor 
those free of duty, except as in this Act expressly pro- 
vided, but if there be used for covering or holding im- 
ported articles, goods, wares, or merchandise, whether 
dutiable or free, any unusual article, form, or material 
adapted for use otherwise than in the bona fide trans- 
portation of such articles, goods, wares, or merchandise 
to the Philippine Islands, duty shall be levied and col- 
lected on such covering or holding in accordance with 
corresponding paragraphs of this Act. 

" (i) Whenever the interior container or packing of 
any article dutiable by weight is of an unusual char- 



CUSTOMS REGULATIONS AND PACKING 291 

acter, including silk-lined cases, cases of fine wood, silk, 
N leather, or imitations thereof, such as are used to contain 
jewelry, plate, trinkets, and the like, such containers or 
packing shall be dutiable at the rate applicable to the 
component material of chief value. 

" (j) "When a single package contains imported mer- 
chandise dutiable according to different weights, or 
weight and ad valorem, the common exterior receptacle 
shall be prorated and the different proportions thereof 
treated in accordance with the provisions of this rule as 
to the dutiability or nondutiability of such packing. 

" (k) Where articles, goods, wares, or merchandise 
dutiable by weight, and not otherwise specially provided 
for, are customarily contained in packing, packages, or 
receptacles of uniform or similar character, it shall be 
the duty of the insular collector of customs, from time 
to time, to ascertain by tests the actual weight or quan- 
tity of such articles, goods, wares, or merchandise, and 
the actual weight of the packages, packing, or receptacles 
thereof, respectively, in which the same are customarily 
imported, and upon such ascertainment, to prescribe 
rules for estimating the dutiable weight or quantity 
thereof, and thereafter such articles, goods, wares, or 
merchandise imported in such customary packing, pack- 
ages, or receptacles shall be entered and the duties 
thereon levied and collected upon the basis of such esti- 
mated dutiable weight or quantity: Provided, That if 
the importer, consignee, or agent shall be dissatisfied 
with such estimated dutiable weight or quantity, and 
shall file with the collector of customs prior to the de- 
livery of the packages designated for examination a writ- 
ten specification of his objections thereto, or if the col- 
lector of customs shall have reason to doubt the exactness 
of the prescribed weight or quantity in any instance, it 
shall be his duty to cause such actual weights or quan- 
tities to be ascertained. 

A. B. Cresap, General Manager of the Luzon Broker- 
age Company, makes the following statement : 

"Many exporters in the United States seem to be of 



292 EXPORT PACKING 

the impression that foreign goods which have been im- 
ported into the United States and duty paid upon their 
entry, are 'free of duty' upon importation into the 
Philippine Islands. This is not the case. All foreign 
merchandise imported into the Philippine Islands is sub- 
ject to duty regardless of the fact that it may have paid 
duty upon entry into the United States. 

"One of the greatest sources of loss of the Philippine 
merchants on foreign merchandise imported from the 
United States, is from the fact that importers in the 
United States will ship foreign merchandise together 
with domestic merchandise in one invoice and fail to 
make notation of this on their invoices, and in the ma- 
jority of cases, even certify that the entire invoice is of 
American origin or manufacture. In cases of this kind, 
the importer is subject to a fine of from one to five times 
the duty and, in almost every case, at least the minimum 
is imposed. In addition to this loss caused to the im- 
porter, by oversight or carelessness on the part of the 
shipper, the shipper is naturally placed under suspicion 
and all importations coming from him are most carefully 
scrutinized. 

' ' Another very important matter is that of marking. 
Marks should be plain in big letters. If stencils are used, 
they should be placed at least on two sides of a package. 
Ninety-eight per cent of unclaimed merchandise which is 
sold in the Philippine Islands annually, and which runs 
into thousands of dollars, is because the marks have been 
rubbed off, or so mutilated that they cannot be read, or 
that the merchandise has been packed insufficiently and 
cannot be identified when it arrives in the Philippine. 
Islands.' ' 

Poland. — Climatic conditions are temperate and offer 
no difficulties, and there is good railway service, in nor- 
mal times, between the principal cities. Direct steamers 
ply from New York to Danzig, where landing facilities 
are satisfactory. The customs tariff of Poland as at pres- 
ent in force consists of 98 items covering articles subject 
to duty, the duties assessed being specific. 



CUSTOMS REGULATIONS AND PACKING 293 

Porto Rico. — Transportation conditions by railway, 
motor truck and coasting vessels are normal. The climate 
of Porto Rico is tropical. All packages which may form 
the basis of commercial transactions must have the net 
weight or quantity plainly marked on the outside. There 
are strict regulations concerning the marking of bundles 
or other packages containing medicinal preparations of 
which distilled spirits form a component part. Porto 
Rico is United States territory and no import tariff 
affects American packing. The steamship companies 
make certain regulations with respect to packing that 
should be investigated and followed. Direct services 
connect the chief ports of the island with New York and 
New Orleans. Freight is usually lightered from steamer 
to shore. 

Portugal. — Transportation, usually by railway, and 
climatic conditions, warm but not tropical, offer no 
difficulties. Packages may be marked with either stencil 
or brush, and some of the steamship companies require 
that the gross weight in kilos should appear upon the 
package. There are some direct sailings from New York, 
but freight may often be transhipped en route. Land- 
ing facilities are satisfactory. Duty is assessed on the 
basis of gross weight on merchandise subject to a rate of 
less than 5 reis per kilo. On articles subject to higher 
rates duty is assessed on the basis of either actual or 
legal net weight. There are strict regulations with re- 
spect to the labeling and packing of patent medicines and 
pharmaceutical preparations, which should be investi- 
gated by exporters of these products. 

Portuguese East Africa (Mozambique). — The consu- 
lar regulations of Portugal apply. Goods should be 
packed to withstand tropical climate. The port of Lou- 
rengo Marques has modern terminal facilities, but in- 
terior transportation is not good. The regulations of the 
steamship companies should be investigated. Most cargo 
from the United States must be transhipped en route. 
Consults of Portugal may be asked for general informa- 
tion regarding the colony. 



294 EXPORT PACKING 

Portuguese West Africa (Angola). — The consular 
regulations of Portugal apply. The regulations of the 
steamship companies should be investigated. Packing 
should be such as to withstand tropical climate and all 
hazards of transportation. Goods must be transhipped 
en route ; landing and other local facilities are far from 
satisfactory. Information may be sought from consuls 
of Portugal. 

Reunion. — The French tariff, with certain exceptions, 
and French consular regulations apply. Packing should 
be of such a nature as to withstand tropical climate and 
all hazards of transportation. Occasionally there is a 
direct steamer from New York, but ordinarily cargo is 
transhipped en route. The island is a French posses- 
sion and information regarding it may be available at 
consulates, of France. 

Roumania. — Transportation facilities in Roumania 
are, in normal times, satisfactory, the railway system 
reaching the principal centers. Direct steamers from 
New York reach Constanza and Galatz, where harbors 
are good. The climate is temperate. The pre-war cus- 
toms tariff of Roumania still applies to imports into 
that country. Duties on most articles are assessed on the 
basis of legal net weight, with specified tare allowances 
fixed in a schedule of tares annexed to the tariff. In view 
of the prevailing conditions at the present time the con- 
sular regulations and those of the steamship companies 
should be investigated and followed. Special or unusual 
forms of packing are only called for when specifically or- 
dered by importers. 

Russia. — All hazards of transportation should be 
guarded against, and considering the situation in Russia 
at present, each shipment should have its own special 
rules. The climate of Russia may, in a general way, be 
compared to that of the northern United States and 
Canada. In normal times port facilities and interior rail- 
way services were satisfactory, and special forms of 
packing only required consideration when specially 
ordered. Under the former Russian tariff, merchandise, 



CUSTOMS REGULATIONS AND PACKING 295 

with few exceptions, was dutiable on the basis of legal 
net weight, with specific tare allowances fixed by a sched- 
ule annexed to the tariff. 

Shippers to Russia can obtain information with re- 
gard to current conditions from the American Russian 
Chamber of Commerce, New York City. It must be re- 
membered that the new states of Lithuania, Esthonia, 
Latvia, and the Republic of Georgia will in all probability 
institute their own tariffs. With respect to the Republic 
of Georgia it is stated that, effective March 1, 1920, the 
provisions of the former Russian customs tariff apply, 
the rate of duty having been increased ten times. The 
pre-war Russian tariff without additional taxation ap- 
plies at the present time to goods imported into Armenia. 
The Republic of Azerbaijan assesses a gross tax of 5 
roubles per poud (poud = 36.1128 pounds) on all classes 
of merchandise. The customs administration at Batum, 
according to latest information obtainable, applies to the 
pre-war Russian tariff, with an increase of 10 per cent 
in the rates of that tariff. 

Salvador. — Transportation conditions in Salvador are 
exceedingly primitive and all hazards must be guarded 
against. The climate of Salvador is tropical. Packages 
may be marked with either stencil or brush and must bear 
consecutive numbers, but need not show weight. Duties 
on merchandise are levied on the basis of gross weight, 
hence lightness of the package is highly desirable, com- 
bined, however, with solidity and strength. There is no 
penalty on mixed packing, but the merchandise so packed 
should be properly declared. The steamship companies 
make certain regulations with respect to packing and 
marking which should be investigated and followed. 
There are likewise strict provisions governing the im- 
portation of pharmaceutical preparations, about which 
information can be obtained from the consul of Salvador, 
New York City. 

Goods receive extremely rough handling. They are 
either transhipped at Panama or come in direct boats 
via San Francisco. In the former case there is extra 



296 EXPORT PACKING 

handling, with increased chance of breakage; and cargo 
is always veiy carelessly treated at the ports of Acajutla 
or La Libertad from the ship to the lighters. Extra pro- 
tection against pilfering and extra waterproofing against 
exposure to sea spray and torrential rains are strongly 
recommended. 

With reference to parcel post shipments, it is stated 
that only soft articles that will stand a large amount of 
squeezing and mashing, or goods shipped in strong 
wooden boxes can withstand the treatment given them in 
Salvador. 

Siam. — There are no official restrictions with regard 
to shipments to Siam excepting that numbers, quanti- 
ties, values, and net weight, that is, the weight of the 
goods excluding"- that of the container and of other 
packing, must be stated on the invoice. Some of the 
steamship companies require that the gross weight in 
pounds should be marked on packages, and these and 
other regulations should be carefully investigated. Pack- 
ing should be of the most substantial character in order 
to withstand tropical climate, discharging to lighters, 
bad transportation conditions in the interior, and tran- 
shipment of cargo en route. 

Spain. — Mild and temperate climatic conditions and 
good railway transportation facilities offer no hazards. 
There are direct steamers from the United States to a 
few ports; to reach others transhipment is necessary. 
Landing conditions are satisfactory; in most cases thor- 
oughly modern. Duty on merchandise is, with certain 
exceptions, assessed on the basis of net weight, which in- 
cludes the weight of the immediate packing and the con- 
tainer in which the goods are sold at retail. There are 
certain specified tare allowances fixed by the tariff. There 
are no official restrictions as to marks or weights, but cer- 
tain regulations have been made by the various steam- 
ship companies, which should be investigated and fol- 
lowed. 

Straits Settlements. — Consular regulations are those 
of the United Kingdom. The Straits Settlements is prac- 



CUSTOMS REGULATIONS AND PACKING 297 

tically a free-trade colony. Goods should be packed to 
withstand highly tropical climate, Singapore lying only 
a few miles from the Equator. The regulations of the 
steamship companies should be investigated. Direct 
steamers take freight from our Atlantic and Pacific ports 
to Singapore and Penang. Landing by lighters is not 
unusually hazardous and no exceptional packing is called 
for, in the absence of special instructions from con- 
signees. Consuls of Great Britain may give information 
regarding the Straits Settlements. 

Sweden. — Neither climatic nor transportation condi- 
tions offer any special difficulties. Sweden may be com- 
pared to our own northern states or to Canada, both as 
to climate and as to railway and canal facilities. There 
are direct steamship connections with New York and port 
conditions are modern and good. Duty in most instances 
is assessed on the basis of legal net weight, which in cer- 
tain specific instances includes the weight of the im- 
mediate container, and tare allowances are specified by 
a schedule annexed to the tariff. All goods imported 
into Sweden must plainly indicate the country of origin, 
and the markings must be of such a nature that their 
erasure would injure the goods. Most of the steamship 
companies require that gross weights in pounds must be 
marked on the packages. 

Switzerland. — There are no official restrictions with 
regard to marks or weights, but certain of the steamship 
companies require that the gross weight in pounds ap- 
pear on the packages. Climatic conditions, like our own, 
and transportation by excellent railway facilities offer no 
difficulties. Merchandise, in most instances, is subject 
to duty assessed on the basis of gross weight, a certain 
percentage being added to the dutiable weight when 
articles are imported without their usual containers. As 
Switzerland has no seaports, imports are received 
through Dutch, Belgian, German, French or Italian ports 
and railway connections. 

Tripoli and Cyrenaica (Libya). — The customs duties 
assessed in Tripoli are ad valorem. Italian consular 



298 EXPORT PACKING 

regulations apply. Packing should be able to withstand 
hazards of hot, tropical climate and primitive landing and 
interior transportation. The regulations of the steam- 
ship companies should be investigated. There are no 
direct sailings from the United States and freight must 
be transhipped en route. An Italian colony; informa- 
tion may be secured from Italian consuls. 

Tunis. — The customs tariff of Tunis assesses duties 
based on both gross and net weight. Consular regula- 
tions are those of France. The regulations of the steam- 
ship companies should be investigated. Packing should 
be such as to withstand hazards of unsatisfactory trans- 
portation and tropical climate. Transhipment is neces- 
sary in order to reach Tunis, as there is no direct steam- 
ship connection with United States ports. Information 
about Tunis should be sought from French consuls. 

Turkey. — Packages should be able to withstand every 
hazard of transportation, which in many sections is prim- 
itive. Climate ranges from temperate to hot, according 
to locality, that of Constantinople and Smyrna being 
similar to that of Washington. There are no official re- 
strictions on marks or weights, but certain of the steam- 
ship companies require that the gross weight in pounds 
appear upon packages. There are direct steamers from 
New York to the principal ports. Landing always by 
lighter. Political and social conditions in Turkey at 
present are such that each shipment should receive special 
investigation, but no extraordinary packing is demanded, 
except when special instructions may be received from 
importers. 

Uganda.— The tariff of Uganda, a British colony, pro- 
vides for ad valorem duties of 10 per cent on all but cer- 
tain specified goods. Goods should be packed in such a 
way as to withstand tropical heat and all transportation 
hazards, including transhipment en route. There are 
no official restrictions as to marks and weights, but the 
regulations of the steamship companies should be in- 
vestigated. Information about Uganda should be sought 
from British consuls. 



CUSTOMS REGULATIONS AND PACKING 299 

Union of South Africa. — The tariff of the Union of 
South Africa assesses ad valorem duties in all but a few 
instances. Although terminal conditions and transporta- 
tion are, in the main, satisfactory, it must be remem- 
bered that in order to reach the Union of South Africa 
goods must pass through the torrid zone, and due allow- 
ance must he made for this in packing. The climate of 
South Africa is warmly temperate. The regulations 
made by various steamship companies should be investi- 
gated and followed. Direct steamers from New York 
reach the principal ports. There are no official restric- 
tions as to marks and weights. To comply with the terms 
of the anti-dumping law in force in the Union of South 
Africa, a special declaration is required to be appended 
to the commercial invoice, showing in detail, among other 
things, the cost of packing. Information may be obtained 
from British consulates. 

United Kingdom. — Transportation, landing and cli- 
matic conditions of the United Kingdom are similar to 
those in the United States. There are numerous direct 
sailings, and ordinary precautions as to overseas pack- 
ages suffice. There are no official restrictions with re- 
spect to weights. The United Kingdom is, in principle, 
a free-trade country, but many articles are dutiable. 
Duties are levied on coffee, chicory, playing cards, 
chloroform and certain other chemical products, fruit, 
sugar, matcnes, motor cars, musical instruments, spirits, 
including perfumery, wine and beer, confectionery, con- 
densed milk, tea, tobacco, table waters, and shoe blacking. 
Most of the duties levied on these articles are specific, 
although there are a few ad valorem duties. The pro- 
visions of the Merchandise Marks Act governing the 
marking of goods imported into the United Kingdom are 
strict and should be investigated by the exporter to that 
country. The official summary of the essential pro- 
visions of this act is quoted below; further information 
with respect to it can be obtained from British consular 
officials. 

"1. Foreign goods imported into the United King- 



300 EXPORT PACKING 

dom which do not bear any marks whatever, either on 
the goods themselves or on the packages or wrappers 
containing them, are not required to bear any qualifying 
statement or indication such as 'Made Abroad,' 'Made 
in Japan,' etc. 

"2. Foreign manufactured goods bearing a name or 
trade mark being, or purporting to be, the name or trade 
mark of a manufacturer, dealer, or trader, in the United 
Kingdom, must have that name or trade mark accom- 
panied by a definite indication of the country of origin 
of the goods. The name of the country is a sufficient in- 
dication, without the words 'Made in,' if name or trade 
mark only appears, e. g., 'John Smith, Holland/ would 
be sufficient. If such a mark as ' John Smith, Sheffield, ' 
is used, then the qualification must be 'Made in Holland' 
or similar wording. 

"3. If foreign imported goods bear the name of a 
place identical with, or a colorable imitation of, the name 
of a place in the United Kingdom, the name should be 
accompanied by the name of the country in which the 
place is situated. Thus, Boston, in Massachusetts, should 
be accompanied by the name 'United States' or by the 
initials 'U. S. A.' 

"4. If a trade description includes the name of a 
place, and the goods on which it appears are not the pro- 
duce of that place, or of the country in which it is situated, 
the trade description "must be accompanied by a state- 
ment indicating the actual country of production. For 
instance, a wine, the produce of California, and described 
as 'Sherry' (which word is derived from the name of the 
place Xeres) should have that description accompanied 
by the statement 'Produced in California,' or should be 
described as California Sherry. An exception to this 
rule is made in cases where the name of a place as a trade 
description is indicative merely of a character of the 
goods, and is not calculated to mislead as the country of 
origin. Thus, such a description as 'Brussels Carpet' or 
'Portland Cement' need not be accompanied by a state- 
ment of the country of actual production, unless as re- 



CUSTOMS REGULATIONS AND PACKING 301 



quired under paragraph 2 above. ' y Other provisions are : 
"5. Trade descriptions in the English language ap- 
plied to foreign goods imported for home use from 
non-English speaking countries, are not regarded as in- 
dications that the goods are of British or Irish origin, 
unless the officers have good ground for considering that 
such trade descriptions are specially designed to convey, 
and do in fact convey, an impression of British or Irish 
origin for the goods. 

1 ' Trade descriptions on imported goods in a foreign 
language, which is not that of the country from which the 
goods a're imported, must be accompanied by a statement 
of the actual country of production of the goods, e. g., 
' Made in Portugal. ' 

"6. As regards watches, any mark on the case is 
deemed to extend to the watch. If therefore a watch case 
is made in this country (United Kingdom) and bears any 
statement or indication of such origin (as, for instance, 
a British assay mark) and the watch itself is made in 
Switzerland, then there must appear either 

(a) in close proximity to the assay mark a con- 
spicuous statement that the watch is of 
foreign make ; or 

(b) on the dial and also on the top or bottom 
place of the movement, visible between the 
bridges, an indelible statement or indica- 
tion that the watch is of Swiss origin. 

7. All qualifying statements, or indications, must 
be distinct, in equally conspicuous characters with, and 
in close proximity to, the marks they are intended to 
qualify. 

"8. Marks on samples or patterns, whether of British 
or foreign manufacture, are not required to be accom- 
panied by any qualification, provided such samples or 
patterns are valueless in themselves, do not form whole 
or complete articles, and can be readily distinguished as 
samples or patterns." 

Uruguay.— Terminal, climatic, and interior transpor- 
tation conditions offer no difficulties. The climate is 



a 



302 EXPORT PACKING 

warm but temperate. It must be remembered, however, 
that goods shipped to Uruguay must pass through the 
tropical belt. Direct steamers connect New York and 
Montevideo. 

Weights need not be marked on the packages. Marks, 
numbers, or other signs on packages must be clearly and 
legibly stamped in indelible ink. In case the markings 
are not clear packages will be detained at the customs 
house. Goods usually sold by weight or measure must 
be marked according to the metric system, and goods sold 
in pounds, bundles or sealed packages should have the 
net measure or weight stamped on the wrapping. 

Of the articles dutiable by weight, some pay duty on 
gross weight, some on legal net weight, and in some in- 
stances the weight of the inner receptacle is included in 
the weight subject to duty. The tariff does not provide 
a penalty for mixed packing. 

Venezuela. — Packages must be most carefully pre- 
pared to withstand all transportation hazards. There 
are direct steamers from New York to the principal ports. 
Freight is sometimes landed on wharves, sometimes by 
lighters. Eailways connect Caracas with its port, La 
Guaira, and also with Valencia and Puerto Cabello. 
Eiver boats tranship goods up the Orinoco (usually via 
Trinidad) to Ciudad Bolivar. Apart from these facili- 
ties transportation is almost wholly by muleback. How- 
ever, little attention need as a rule be paid to special 
packing for such transport, as practically all goods for 
remote destinations are repacked by the large merchants 
in the ports. The climate varies from tropical along the 
coast and in the Orinoco districts to mild in Caracas and 
the highlands. A considerable transit trade is carried on 
via Maracaibo for a section of Colombia, involving diffi- 
cult and primitive transport methods. 

The customs tariff of Venezuela assesses duties on the 
basis of gross weight, and if articles subject to different 
rates of duty are packed in the same container, the entire 
shipment is subject to duty at the rate assessed on the 
highest taxed article so included. Great care has to be 



CUSTOMS REGULATIONS AND PACKING 303 

observed in preparing all papers for Venezuela, as the 
customs officers are extremely exacting. 

The pure food regulations of Venezuela, as well as 
those referring to medicines and alcoholic beverages, are 
stringent and should be carefully investigated. 

Zanzibar. — The tariff of Zanzibar prescribes an ad 
valorem duty of 7% per cent on all goods with certain 
specified exceptions. In the absence of regular direct 
steamship lines, freight is usually transhipped en route. 
Goods are discharged into lighters, often through a heavy 
surf. Packing should be sufficiently strong to withstand 
hazards of transportation and tropical climate, and thor- 
oughly waterproofed. There are no official restrictions 
as to marks or weights, but the regulations of the steam- 
ship companies should be investigated. Information re- 
garding Zanzibar may be sought from British consulates. 



CHAPTER XI 

THE PACKING OF AUTOMOBILES AND 
MOTOR TRUCKS 

THE packing of automobiles lias one angle that is not 
present with most classes of machinery, and that 
is the protection of the costly coachwork which is 
such an important matter, both when the machine is for 
resale and when the satisfaction of the customer who 
orders direct is at stake. Injury to the coachwork will 
either necessitate patching up or repainting, and there 
are comparatively few places, except the large cities in 
the countries of most advanced technical development, 
where this can be done satisfactorily. The coachwork 
of the car may be disfigured in many ways; by the car 
working loose in the case, by improper placing of the 
wheels or by so placing them that they work loose and 
come in contact with the coachwork, by faulty protection, 
and so on. 

Poor adjustment of the car within the case, however, 
may do far more damage to the car than merely denting 
or scraping the body, for a car that swings inside the case 
is likely to break the fenders, lamps and other fragile 
parts. The car must also be well protected against mois- 
ture and humidity, and there should be no doubt of the 
perfect dryness of the case before it is shipped. A case 
that is not made of well-seasoned lumber or that is con- 
structed of damp wood, will cause mold to form and pro- 
duce serious damage to upholstery and top covering. 

It is probable that the most important part of the 
automobile case is the base, and particular attention 
should be given to this portion of the export package. 
The underframe should be of very solid construction, 
with longitudinal beams extending the full length of the 
c?se, one on each side and one in the middle. The cross 

304 



THE PACKING OF AUTOMOBILES 305 

pieces fixed to the beams should be adequate in every way 
to insure a perfectly rigid base when the car is fastened 
down. The upper structure must be strong enough to 
withstand a severe shock from above or from the side, 
and every case should be provided with skids so that the 
package will never rest flat on the ground. If the skids 
are not sufficiently high it is very probable that water will 
enter the case and do serious damage, but with proper 
skids even though water should enter along the base it 
would quickly drain off. 

Examples of Actual Practice. — A large manufacturing 
company describes its export packing as follows, supply- 
ing a photograph which is reproduced on page 307. ' ' The 
finished crate contains a seven-passenger touring car 
to be shipped to South Africa. We would call attention 
to the spare wheel bolted on supports above the back seat. 
This car was covered with cheese cloth, thoroughly pro- 
tecting the entire body from dust and other like perils, 
and, of course, all metal parts were thoroughly coated 
with grease to prevent rusting or tarnishing in transit. 
Spark plugs are taken out and the motor itself is thor- 
oughly greased. The plugs are wrapped in oiled paper, 
and the tools are also well oiled and wrapped in similar 
paper. The car rests on 1%" matched lumber covered 
with tar paper. The car is run on this bottom, the wheels 
taken off and secure blocking used. The framing of the 
case is then made, covered with tarred paper and sealed 
with matched lumber, and the top is covered with rubber 
roofing. All joints are cemented and weather stripped.' ' 

Another manufacturing company writes, in sending 
photographs reproduced on page 308: "For the bottom 
of the case we use three pieces of 3" x 6" timbers with a 
cross layer of 1" tongued and grooved lumber with a layer 
of Safepack waterproof paper, then four 1" boards are 
laid lengthwise, two on each side, giving a double bottom 
for the support of the car. The 3" x 6" timbers raise the 
case above the ground so that even if allowed to stand in 
the open and in surface water no moisture gets into the 
case. 



306 EXPORT PACKING 

"The framework of our case is made of 2" x 4" 
Canadian spruce, with diagonal bracing to prevent the 
case from being knocked out of shape. We consider 
spruce greatly superior to yellow pine and N. C. pine of 
the same dimensions, as it is stronger and will not split 
when heavy nails are driven into it. The framework is 
covered with Safepack waterproof paper, followed by a 
layer of 1" tongued and grooved lumber nailed tightly 
together. 

"The car is supported on jacks at the four hubs, and 
is also held down at the four hubs, besides being braced 
at each end. "All bright parts and the motor are slushed 
to prevent rusting and the oxidation of nickeled parts. 
The top is removed and carefully wrapped in paper. The 
windshield is also removed and packed in a separate 
case, securely fastened inside of the case." 

A well-known automobile manufacturing company 
comments as follows on photographs which it transmits 
and which are reproduced on pages 311 and 312: "The 
cases in which our cars are packed for export shipment 
are standardized in every detail just as are the cars which 
they contain. The entire case is lined with tar paper to 
prevent damage from water or leakage of other cargo on 
shipboard. The top is covered with tar paper and the 
entire package iron strapped. Our case measures 274 
cubic feet, weighing 2,580 pounds. Attention should be 
called to the method of placing the windshield in a frame 
on the bottom of the case beneath the rear of the top. 

"Partly knocked down touring cars are shipped in 
cases measuring 160 cubic feet and weighing 2,320 
pounds. The two photographs on page 312 illustrate 
the packing and how the various units are placed in the 
case. Note that the tires are placed around the frame 
in order to make theft impossible without cutting the 
tires or tearing the case entirely apart. Unbroken paper 
wrapping prevents dust from accumulating and is used 
in addition to the tar paper.' ' 

An organization in New York which does a great deal 
of automobile packing for export firms supplies several 




307 




Courtesy of Haynes Automobile Co. 
Method of Beginning Automobile Casex 
Bottom of case is made of 3 pieces 3" x 6" cross layer of 1" tongued and grooved 
lumber, then layer of waterproof paper, finally 2 one-inch boards on each side. 




Courtesy of Haynes Automobile Co. 
A Partially Completed Case. 
Note excellent end bracing, firmly braced jaicks supporting hubs, and method 
of packing wwdshield and top. 

308 



TEE PACKING OF AUTOMOBILES 309 

accompanying photographs, reproduced on page 315, de- 
scribing its operations as follows: "The car is first 
measured and a platform built slightly larger than the 
greatest length and width of the car. This platform is 
built on three 2" x 4" skids with 1" lumber nailed cross- 
wise. The car is then moved on the platform and the 
wheels removed. The axles are firmly placed so that the 
car cannot shift in either direction. All metal parts are 
well greased to prevent rusting. 

" Photograph shows method of securing bumper in 
rear ; two of the wheels have been fastened to the floor of 
the case, the floating axle having been removed and 
firmly secured at right angles to the axle housing. The 
windshield is removed and laid on the rear seat, the 
cushion being turned upside down and placed on top of 
the shield. The top is folded down over the front seat. 

"The wheels are bolted to the sides of the case, one 
wheel to each side and two wheels to the floor. We use 
a framework of 2" x3" material, including uprights and 
cross beams on the roof. We think our method as shown 
in the photographs is excellent as preventing forward and 
backward movement as well as upward movement. The 
sides of the case are lined with waterproof paper, the 
sides and roof made of tongued and grooved %" "stuff 
nailed to the frame of 2" x 3" stuff placed about 4 feet 
apart.' ' In this connection it is to be noted that most 
automobile manufacturers use considerably heavier ma- 
terial for uprights, corner posts, etc., as will be observed 
from other specifications included in this chapter. 

The National Automobile Chamber of Commerce, Inc., 
New York City, has recently published a booklet giving 
the results of an investigation of export packing of auto- 
mobiles. The conclusions reached are as follows : 

"As the result of a careful investigation into the 
methods used by member automobile and truck manufac- 
turers in packing automobiles and trucks for export ship- 
ment, your committee has to report that most of the 
manufacturers are working along the same lines. The 
methods used in the different factories are similar, and 



310 EXPORT PACKING 

the variations consist in the way details are worked out. 

" Boxing Passenger Cars.— On account of the scarcity 
of ocean space for shipping automobiles, the size of all 
automobile cases has been greatly decreased during the 
last two years. While some manufacturers have made 
more progress in this direction than others, the results 
show that considerable thought has been given by most 
of them to this very important matter. Due to differences 
in size and construction of the various cars, it is possible, 
in some cases, to reduce the dimensions of the packing 
case more than in others. The smaller cars seem to be 
more adaptable to the practice of disassembling in order 
to conserve space. No doubt the question as to how far 
this disassembling process should be carried has arisen 
a number of times, taking into consideration not only the 
cost of doing this work at the factory but also the facili- 
ties of the dealers to reassemble when the car is received 
at its destination. With a few exceptions, however, we 
find that the scarcity and cost of freight space have been 
the controlling factors. 

"In our investigation we find that practically all of 
the different manufacturers are building good, strong, 
substantial packing cases. We found, however, some dif- 
ference of opinion as to the size of the timber, the kind of 
lumber to be used, and the methods of supporting the car 
in the case, which affects the framework and the method 
of bracing. Some manufacturers are building a heavy 
framework of timbers to support the car independent of 
the lumber on the outside, the cars in this case being 
packed on their sides and also shipped in that manner. 
Cars so packed and shipped on their sides can be placed 
on the ordinary railroad equipment without the necessity 
of decking one over the other, in order to get a full car- 
load. All cars, however, are not adaptable to this method 
of packing. 

"Most of the manufacturers, however, depend upon 
the bottom or floor of the case as the supporting frame to 
carry the car. Cases of this description, however, are 
braced so that the cars can be carried on the side without 




Courtesy of Ford Motor Company. 

Beginning a Standardized Case. 

The completed case measures 21k cubic feet and weighs 2,580 lbs. The tour- 
ing car is securely held to bottom of case by blocks through which axles are 
placed. 




Courtesy of Ford Motor Company. 
Partially Completed Standardized Case. 



Note method of placing windshield in frame beneath rear of body, 
lined throughout with tar paper to prevent damage from water. 

311 



Case is 




Courtesy of Ford Motor Company. 
Casing a Partly Knocked Down Car. 

Method of placing various units. Note that tires are placed around frame, 
making theft impossible unless tires are cut or case is torn apart. 




Courtesy of Ford Motor Company. 
Partly Finished Case for Knocked Down Car. 
The body, top and accessories have been added to the units previously shown. 

312 



THE PACKING OF AUTOMOBILES 313 

damage. The first method of packing requires much 
heavier timbering, and results in more dead weight on 
which freight must be paid. 

"We found some variations in the lumber used for 
outside covering, both in thickness, width and kind of 
lumber used. Thickness varied from %" to 1%", an d 
there seems to be a variety of kinds of wood. This, no 
doubt, is due to the scarcity of lumber since the war 
began. 

1 i The ideal packing case is one that will carry the car 
from the factory to the destination without damage, and 
at the same time should be as light as possible and of a 
size to save as much freight space as possible. 

"Extent of Dismantling. — We found one manufac- 
turer packing five and seven-passenger touring cars by 
removing the front and rear fenders and running boards, 
packing the fenders in the tonneau of the car and wrap- 
ping each fender separately to prevent damage. 

"In another instance, both the front and rear axles, 
in addition to the fenders and running boards, were 
removed. 

"In some cases, however, no saving of space is accom- 
plished by removing the axles. This depends entirely 
upon the design of the car, although it is the practice in 
some places to remove the front axle or at least the 
spindle and not the rear axle, as the body often projects 
far enough out so that removing the axle in the rear is 
not necessary. 

"A great saving of space can be accomplished by 
pressing down the springs, or going still further and dis- 
connecting the springs entirely from the frame, dropping 
the frame down on the rear axle housing. This also 
serves the purpose of keeping the car rigid and prevents 
any possibility of chafing. 

"Another very important matter — and one that often 
causes a great deal of difficulty — is the proper care of the 
loose parts, particularly the smaller parts that are re- 
moved when the car is packed. We found that the small 
parts are usually packed in a cloth bag, which is attached 



314 EXPORT PACKING 

to some prominent part of the car or placed under the 
seat. A few extra bolts, nuts and cotter pins were usually 
added to replace those that might have been damaged or 
bent in disassembling. All loose parts, other than above, 
such as spare rims, wheels, fenders, etc., were found to 
be substantially held in position in some convenient part 
of the case by the use of webbing, bolts or strap iron, the 
top being wrapped in waterproof paper and burlap and 
packed in such a manner as to prevent damage from 
chafing or from the vibration of the case during shipment, 
and the windshields after removal were packed- in a sep- 
arate light case, which in turn was attached to the in- 
terior of the case at some convenient point, either in the 
end or in the top of the case. 

"Packing Chassis. — In reference to packing chassis, 
still more disassembling is possible than in packing com- 
plete cars. In most cases, these units were stripped 
almost completely in order to obtain the greatest reduc- 
tion possible in the size of the case. In several instances 
we found that the manufacturers were packing two 
chassis in one case — one chassis being attached to the 
bottom of the case, and the other one in a reverse posi- 
tion to the top of the case. This seems to be very satis- 
factory in some instances, particularly with the smaller 
cars. However, it is possible to pack chassis units sep- 
arately by disassembly in less space than the combined 
shipment of two chassis. This, of course, depends con- 
siderably on the construction of the chassis, and, for 
large cars, this dual method of packing, owing to the size 
and weight of the case, does not seem practical. 

"In one plant we found that chassis were being 
packed in what is known as a knocked down condition on 
the basis of twelve chassis in one unit, the engines being 
packed in six cases, two engines to a case, and the frames, 
axles, tools, hoods, dashes, wheels, front fenders, radia- 
tors, gas tanks and miscellaneous parts being packed in 
separate cases. Where large shipments are to be con- 
sidered, we believe that this method is very desirable, as 
it is the most economical method of packing, but unless 




Courtesy of P. Brady and Son Co. 
Method of Securing Bumper in Eear. 

Two wheels ore fastened to floor of case, floating axle is removed and secured 
at right angles to axle housing, windshield removed and laid on rear seat, cushion 
is placed upside down above windshield, and top folded down over front seat. 



WT- . HF 




Courtesy of P. Brady and Son Co. 
Nailing Side op Case and Adjusting Braces for Top. 

Note method of bolting wheels to side of case. Two wheels are similarly 
bolted to base. 

315 




316 



THE PACKING OF AUTOMOBILES 317 

a large volume is to be considered we do not believe that 
it should be adopted, as entirely different facilities are 
required which would break up the usual routine. There 
is also the possibility of some part of the shipment going 
astray to be considered. 

"Boxing Commercial Cars.— In packing vehicles for 
commercial purposes, practically the same methods are 
used as those followed with passenger cars, but on ac- 
count of the size and weight of these vehicles, a much 
stronger and larger packing case is required. Timbers 
must be of large dimensions to carry the load that is 
placed upon them. The size of these vehicles makes it 
all the more necessary to disassemble the different parts 
in order to save shipping space, and we found in the fac- 
tories visited that this very important matter was re- 
ceiving attention. In one instance, where we found the 
packing being done in a very substantial and compact 
case, they were removing the front and rear axles and 
packing them lengthwise in the case, also removing the 
seat and placing it back of the engine. Commercial 
vehicles are often equipped with a driver's seat provided 
with a hood, which cannot be taken apart, these parts 
often requiring an addition of at least a cubic ton, and 
considerable space could be saved in working out these 
details, so that they could be disassembled. 

"Protection Against the Elements. — The next impor- 
tant feature is the means used for protecting the cars 
from the action of salt water or dampness of any kind. 
We found that there was considerable variation in the 
material used for this purpose as far as the lining of the 
cases is concerned, and also the material and methods of 
applying the rust preventatives. 

"Ordinary wrapping paper is being used by some for 
lining the case, but in most of the packing cases we found 
that waterproof material was being used. In addition, 
some place a waterproof covering over the car. The 
quality of this material was, of course, governed consid- 
erably by the value of the car, and as a rule this feature 
of lining was carried out satisfactorily. Considerable 



318 EXPORT PACKING 

saving is possible in the selection of a material of this 
kind, as widths are obtainable that can be used without 
any cutting. This is particularly important for the top 
lining of the case, so that there will be no seams that 
might allow leakage. It is also important to select a 
material for this purpose that is free from any surface 
covering that might sift off, such as talc or sand, and in- 
jure the finish of the car. This lining should also be of 
such a composition as to stand considerable heat and to 
be free from acids or anything of that nature that might 
affect the finish of the car. 

"Rust Prevention. — In regard to the different parts 
of the car that require greasing or protection from rust, 
where the production was large enough, we found a 
spraying system in service using a mixture of vaseline 
and gasoline, this material being generously applied to 
all parts of the chassis that might rust. This is very 
satisfactory, requires little time, and the material can 
be more thoroughly applied than by any other means, as 
it is possible to reach parts of the chassis that would 
otherwise be neglected. This greasing operation in some 
factories was being taken care of by the application of 
heavy oil or vaseline by means of a brush. This is not 
nearly as desirable as the spraying process, but where the 
production is small it can be satisfactorily worked out if 
care is taken to see that the work is thoroughly done. 

"To prevent rusting of the cylinder walls, and the 
sticking of the pistons in the cylinders, most manufac- 
turers were injecting heavy oils in liberal quantities into 
the cylinders. This seems to be a necessary precaution 
in export shipments. 

"In one place we found them using a material known 
as 'coroP to protect the nickel plated parts. This ma- 
terial can be easily applied either with a brush or spray, 
and forms an almost transparent film on the bright parts, 
drying very quickly. It is very satisfactory for this pur- 
pose, and can be easily removed with gasoline. Vaseline, 
however, is being used by most of the factories to protect 
bright parts. 




Courtesy of Dodge Bros. 
Packing a Car on its Side. 

This method obviates the necessity of decking one case over another in 
shipping carload Jots. 




Courtesy of Dodge Bros. 
Protecting the Chassis from Eust. 
A mixture of vaseline and gasoline is sprayed on with a grease gun. 

319 



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THE PACKING OF AUTOMOBILES 321 

"Band Iron. — To strengthen the cases and also to pre- 
vent pilfering, band iron is nsed by most of the factories. 
Several had gone to great pains to prevent theft by using 
continuous bands of this material around all the joints 
of the case. There was considerable variation in the 
gauge of steel used, but the best results seem to be ob- 
tained by those using an annealed No. 22 gauge band iron 
one inch wide. This material was soft enough to allow 
nails to be driven through it, but had the necessary 
strength to allow for tightening. 

"Stenciling. — A very important detail in boxing 
motor cars for overseas is the use of proper stencils, as 
regards size of the letters and figures used, and also hav- 
ing all the information required by our export customers 
placed in a uniform manner on the cases. 

"Letters and figures at least 1^4" high, showing the 
weights in pounds and kilos and dimensions of the case in 
inches, should be placed on four sides of the case. The 
customer's mark and case number should also be shown 
on four sides of the case in at least l 1 /^" letters. (This 
is the longest letter obtainable at present from the stand- 
ard stencil cutting machines.) It is advisable to place 
these stencils on the case in some regular manner, and 
good, clear stencils can be obtained by using stenciling 
inks that are obtainable for this purpose. 

1 ' Larger size stencils are very acceptable if available, 
but in handling a large production a stencil cutting ma- 
chine is a necessity, and so far the size of the letters and 
numerals that can be cut with these machines has been 
limited to two small sizes, %" and l 1 /^". 

"To prevent the stencils becoming indistinct due to 
weather effects on the lumber, shellac can be used to cover 
that part of the case, thus preserving the stenciled in- 
scription so that it is clear and distinct at the destination 
of the case. 

"Lumber. — In tabulating the information we have ob- 
tained on the boxing methods used on twenty-two dif- 
ferent touring car models and chassis, we found that 
yellow pine was most used for the lumber of the case, 



322 EXPORT PACKING 

nine using yellow pine, two spruce, two a low grade of 
white pine, and two North Carolina pine; the rest used 
a variety of materials. In the size of timbers used for 
the framework and packing of the cases, seven were 
made up of 2" x 6" and 2" x 4" ; six of 2" x 4" and 4" x 4" ; 
five of 2" x 4" ; one of 2" x 6" ; one of 2" x 6" and 2" x 8"; 
one of 4" x 6" and 2" xf; one 2" x 6" and 4" x 4". In 
reference to the thickness of the lumber used for the out- 
side of the case, the most were using %" matched lumber; 
thirteen were using this thickness; two 1%" matched; 
four 1" matched, and three 1" unmatched lumber. 

" Further Analysis of Methods. — As to the lining of 
the case, we learned that all cases except three were 
being lined completely, the few exceptions using a lining 
in the top of the case only. Nineteen were using tar felt 
roofing material, two kraft paper and one ordinary 
wrapping paper. 

"In the extent of disassembling, we found that all 
removed wheels, top and windshield and seven plants 
also removed the axles. By twelve the fenders were 
being removed. The seven that had removed the axles 
also had removed fenders and there were in addition 
five others who were removing fenders who did not take 
off the axles. 

"The practice of depressing the springs to cut down 
the size of the case was followed by the majority and 
some disconnected the shackles, allowing the frame to 
come down as low as possible. One removed the rear 
springs entirely. 

"Only three packed the cars on the side; all others 
packed the cars on the bottom of the case. 

"Among the methods used in packing chassis, there 
were three where two chassis were packed in one case. 
In one factory, the chassis was completely disassembled, 
and the different units packed in separate cases. As 
this report covered nine different chassis, the majority 
therefore are still packing chassis singly. In each 
instance, however, the chassis were disassembled to a 
considerable extent, and in at least three instances re- 



THE PACKING OF AUTOMOBILES 323 

ferred to chassis were almost completely disassembled. 

"In regard to the protection of cars from damage 
due to dampness or exposure to salt water, it is the uni- 
versal practice to inject heavy oil in the cylinder. In 
one plant, however, we found that this had not been done 
recently, and that no trouble had been reported. The 
use of grease or vaseline was also recognized as being 
absolutely necessary, and in several factories we found 
the chassis parts were being still further protected by a 
spraying process, using vaseline diluted with gasoline. 

"Tabulated Data. —Reference to the table, page 320, 
showing the wheelbase, type of car, the dimensions of 
the case and the number of cubic feet will bring out some 
interesting data by comparing one car with another. 

"In regard to packing trucks, all those considered 
were without bodies, yellow pine and hardwood being 
used about equally, the outside lumber being 1" and the 
timbering for the framework varying according to the 
size of the chassis. The tar felt roofing material was 
being used almost exclusively to line the cases, heavy 
grease was being used for rust prevention and all pro- 
tected the cylinders by heavy oil. In each instance, the 
axles had been removed, as well as a number of other 
parts such as the radiator, steering gear and smaller 
parts." 

Marking of Trucks. — The High Commission of a Eu- 
ropean government, from its New York office, submits 
the following: "Regarding marking of cases containing 
automobile trucks, letters and figures 12 inches in height 
have frequently been used, although we believe that clean 
cut letters and figures of 6" or even 3" will serve every 
purpose. On boxes containing spare parts the smallest 
letters and figures used for marking should not be less 
than 2" high.' ' 



CHAPTER XII 
SHRINKING THE PACKAGE 

IT is true that progressive exporters were aware of 
the necessity of shrinking or reducing the export 
packages even before the war, but the imperative 
command to do this came to us during the great struggle 
when a minimum of shipping space was available for a 
maximum of goods. The Government took the leading 
part in this work, but the efforts of the authorities were 
splendidly supported by the rank and file of manufac- 
turers, with the result that more practical and workable 
data were obtained during this brief period than would 
probably have been obtained in peace times in many 
years. 

Like any other industrial or scientific problem, export 
packing may be reduced to comparatively few funda- 
mentals, and these fundamentals I believe are essentially 
the preservation of the goods, economy in the duties and 
economy in weight and space. To repeat this statement in 
another form, we may say that on the packing depends 
the arrival of the merchandise in good shape, the amount 
of rail and ocean freights charged for the transporta- 
tion and in many cases the amount of duties that will 
be assessed at the port of entry. When one considers just 
how much is at stake, the subject is one that merits and 
demands the closest study, for the satisfaction of the 
customer absolutely depends on fulfilling these require- 
ments and on the satisfaction of the customer depends 
the continuance of business relations and consequently 
the continuance of the export trade. 

The War Department saved millions of dollars by 
decreasing the displacement of ocean shipments during 
the war and we believe that this saving is going to be 
duplicated in the future in the export packing of pro- 

324 



SHRINKING THE PACKAGE 325 

gressive American manufacturers. As a rule, ocean 
freight rates are calculated on the amount of space occu- 
pied by the cargo and the reduction of displacement will 
not only result in reducing freight rates, but will mean 
saving in freight car space, in storage space, in handling 
costs and in many cases in the cost of the package itself. 
Moreover, as duties are frequently levied on gross weight 
the reduction in size of the package will mean a reduction 
in the cost of entering the goods. 

The work done by the Government during the war 
will doubtless remain a standard for many years to come, 
and it is a standard that should be kept constantly in 
mind by the exporter who really means to develop an 
export business. The men working for the different 
military branches during the war succeeded in reducing 
the space occupied by a five-ton truck from 1,100 cubic 
feet to 260 cubic feet; camp kitchens were crated so as 
to carry in the open spaces food supplies and kitchen 
utensils; bales were so designed that the burlap cut to 
the exact size of a sand bag and could be so used after 
the goods had been unpacked; lathes, drill presses and 
other equipment were reduced so that a saving was made 
of many cubic feet on each shipment, and the same was 
true for gun-carriages, airplanes, ration-carts, and so 
forth. The same story could be told for practically all 
commodities shipped abroad by the Government during 
this time and the work accomplished will be of incal- 
culable value in the future to international American 
trade. 

How Shrinking May be Accomplished.— A package 
may be shrunk or reduced by the more compact packing 
of the contents of the package and by the re-designing 
of the container itself, thereby reducing the exterior 
dimensions. It would probably be difficult to state 
exactly whether greater savings have been made by 
re-designing the package or by changing the disposition 
of the contents in the package, but it is probable that in 
almost every case something of the two principles 
entered and will enter into every satisfactory export 



326 EXPORT PACKING 

package. There is still another method by which the 
package may be reduced and that is by striving to reduce 
the space occupied by the individual items of the pack- 
age and in many cases a surprising saving can be made. 
In a recent issue of Commerce Reports the case is cited 
of an English shipment of chemical tabloids which were 
packed in lots of 25 tabloids in a very large bottle, the 
empty space in the bottle being filled with raw cotton. 
According to the report in this case, the same sized bottle 
could have held 50 tabloids and still leave sufficient space 
for the absorbent cotton, and as the duties were levied 
according to the weight of bottle and packing there was 
an appreciable saving that could well have been taken 
advantage of by a competitor, since the laid-down cost 
of a full bottle would have been less. In this case a fur- 
ther advantage of the full bottle would have been that 
possible surreptitious extraction of the tabloids by dis- 
honest druggists would have been largely avoided. 

One of the most common errors in packing is the 
failure to utilize the waste spaces which are created by 
the character or form of the contents, for example, filling 
the "hole in the doughnut" of the rubber tires with 
cartons containing tubes. Waste of space may also be 
occasioned by using containers which do not fit the case, 
and this almost always results from the slovenly prac- 
tice of trying to make a one-sized case do for a number 
of commodities. Fortunately there is plenty of good 
practice in this particular, and in the commodity chap- 
ters of this book more than one manufacturer has spoken 
of the different cases used for different classes of goods. 
If any manufacturer thinks he is saving money by using 
the same sized case for all of his line, let him consider 
all the costs that directly result from this practice and 
the tiny comparative saving that results from the use 
of a one-sized case. 

A long series of experiments should be carried on 
with the contents of cases before the final arrangement 
is decided on, and every possible arrangement should be 
tried out before the standard case is designed. Eemark- 




Courtesy of Indiana Truck Corp. 
Method of Packing Disassembled Trucks. 
For specifications of cases, see teat. 




Courtesy of Indiana Truck Corp, 

Completed Case Containing Disassembled Truck. 
This case shows the results of "shrinking the package." 

327 




Courtesy of Norton Co. 
Cylindrical Grinding Machine Assembled. 

Comparison of the cubic contents of this machine with that of the boxes 
in complete shipment makes evident the extent to which the machine has 
been stripped and the care with which it is packed. 




"Courtesy of Norton Co. 
Method of Constructing Box. 

Note the excellent construction of the framework of the box. To a man 
'experienced in export packing this picture tells the whole story of careful 
packing. 

328 



SHRINKING THE PACKAGE 329 

able things were done by the Government and the Forest 
Products Laboratory in this work, and in the chapter on 
the Forest Products Laboratory we have mentioned a 
few of the things accomplished, such, for example, as 
the reduction of the case for the Browning automatic 
rifle. 

Displacement may be reduced in other ways. For 
example, cleats may be put on the inside of the cases in- 
stead of on the outside where the contents are of an irreg- 
ular size and there are open spaces which make room for 
the cleats, and this is also true for battens that are placed 
around the middle of cases. In other packages steel 
strapping will be found equally strong as battens and 
the removal of the battens from the case will effect quite 
an economy in space. 

It is probable that more waste takes place in the 
case of crates than in that of cases, for frequently the 
crate seems to be built up without any particular plan 
in view, the idea being to crate the piece of machinery 
or other commodity and to build up the crate according 
to the more or less capricious form of the goods to be 
packed. It will be found, however, in this case as in 
others that experimenting will do a great deal toward 
reducing displacement. Space can be saved by proper 
designing of the corner joints, by proper placing of the 
braces and so on. 

Another important saving in displacement is the 
result of the use of the proper woods, and this question 
of wood strength cannot be given too great study by the 
packer. In the chapter on the Forest Products Labora- 
tory there are several graphs that give quite exhaustive 
information on the subject of different woods, but the 
writer would not advise anyone to take the information 
given in that chapter as final. New experiments are 
constantly being made at the Laboratory and the pro- 
gressive packing room should keep in close touch with 
these experiments. However, the point of this para- 
graph is that important savings may be effected by 
using, for example, a hardwood instead of a soft wood, 



330 EXPORT PACKING 

as the former permits the use of a thinner wood than is 
the case for the soft wood, and this all means a saving 
in displacement. I know of one concern that is now 
saving from three to four cubic feet per crate, the direct 
result of changing the slats in the case from pine to oak. 

Important savings in space may also be made by the 
use of steel strapping, corner irons and other metal 
fastenings which will permit the use of a thinner wood. 
It was found by the Government that a box made of one- 
quarter inch lumber properly strapped would stand up 
as well as a box made of one inch lumber with no straps. 
Likewise there is the saving that may be obtained by 
shipping goods unpacked when such is possible. Large 
machinery particularly can frequently be shipped with 
absolute safety without packing, and in Chapter XXIV 
we show a locomotive shipment where the machine is 
shipped without disassembling and practically without 
packing. 

A large manufacturer of motor trucks submits photo- 
graphs on page 327 illustrating its own practice in 
" shrinking' ' the package. This company ships its trucks 
of varying capacity in cases as follows : 

Capacity Net Weight Gross Weight Dimensions Cubic Feet 

IK ton 3,582 5,030 45 " x 45 " x 16'9 " 220 

2 " 4,850 6,412 48" x 45" x 18'3" 273 

2Y 2 " 5,113 6,675 48" x 45" x 19'3" 28) 

3)4 " 6,320 8,170 48" x 45" x 20'3" 304 

5 " 8,100 10,250 51"x48"x21 / 9" 370 

The smallest chassis, l^-ton, is boxed on two sills 
4"x6", forming the bottom of the crate, which is 
securely bolted and anchored. For the chassis of the 
2 and 2%-ton trucks, 4"x8" sills are used, and for the 
chassis of the larger sizes, 3% and 5-ton trucks, 4"xl0". 
Tongued and grooved matched lumber is used for top, 
bottom and sides, running up and down and crosswise, 
not lengthwise. For the platform of all chassis 1*4" ma- 
terial, dressed on one side, is used. About 5 lbs. of No. 
12-penny common nails are required for each platform. 
For the top of crates for all chassis matched or ship lap 



SHRINKING THE PACKAGE 331 

lumber is used, the braces being of %"x6" stuff. About 
3 lbs. of 6-penny common nails and about 2y 2 lbs. of 
8-penny common nails are used for one top. The sides of 
crates for all models are made of y§" matched material, 
the top tie being of l%"x3" stuff, the bottom tie of %"x6" 
stuff and the braces of %" x 6" lumber. About 3 lbs. of 
6-penny common nails are used for each side, or 6 lbs. for 
each crate ; about 1 lb. 8-penny common nails are used for 
each side, or 2 lbs. for each crate. The ends of crates for 
all models are made of %" matched or ship lap lumber. 
The top tie is made of iy 2 "x3" stuff, the bottom tie of 
%"x6", and the braces of 7 / 8 "x6". About y 2 lb. of 6-penny 
common nails are used for each end, or 1 lb. for each 
crate ; about % lb. of 8-penny common nails are used for 
each end or about 1 lb. for each crate. 



CHAPTEE XIII 
THE PACKING OF MACHINERY 

THE American machinery industry, with justice, is 
and has been considered one of the great as well 
as one of the model trades of the world, and while 
the volume of export business during the war was im- 
mense, the industry by no means owes its development or 
its present position to war demand and urgency. The 
great machine .tool manufacturers of this country, for ex- 
ample, have always occupied a high position in the tech- 
nical trades of the whole world and the fact that more 
than $58,507,942 worth of this sort of machinery was ex- 
ported in 1919 is merely a recognition of merit. It is in- 
teresting to note that in many cases where tools were 
made for foreign governments under the most rigid spe- 
cifications, the* work turned out produced the highest com- 
mendation from the inspectors. The general subject of 
the packing of machinery for export has already been 
thoroughly treated by a recognized authority of the high- 
est standing and most comprehensive experience, in the 
special chapter of this volume by Mr. M. C. Fitz Gerald, 
Manager of Transportation of the General Electric Com- 
pany. It only remains in this chapter to quote supple- 
mentary suggestions from letters and instructions issued 
by other authorities, and to illustrate the best practice in 
packing machinery by some large and successful ex- 
porters. 

Disassembling Machines. — Much displacement, mean- 
ing reduction in cubic space and consequent charges, 
was saved by the United States Government in its pack- 
ing of machinery for export during the war, and is today 
being saved by manufacturers, through the partial or 
complete disassembling of the contents of cases. But 

332 



THE PACKING OF MACHINERY 333 

disassembling must be most carefully considered. In 
the case of simple machinery, the reassembling of which 
requires no particular technical skill, there should be no 
hesitancy in taking the machine down and packing it in 
the smallest possible space, but in the case of very com- 
plicated machines that require an expert mechanic for 
their reassembling, the manufacturer must carefully 
consider what facilities are present for taking care of 
the reassembling problem at the point of destination. 
In the case of costly machinery it is frequently the prac- 
tice to have the customer pay the erecting costs, and 
these erecting costs may include the sending of a 
mechanic from the United States to do the work, the 
customer paying all expenses. In many instances, how- 
ever, carefully worked out instruction sheets will take 
care of the problem, but these instruction sheets should 
be in the language of the customer and most carefully 
translated by a man knowing technically the particular 
machine. It is always possible to have good photographs 
taken of the process of assembling the machine and these 
should always accompany the instruction sheets. How- 
ever, in considering the subject of disassembling machin- 
ery it is always well to remember that the knocking down 
process and shipment of a dismantled machine may 
sometimes cause more trouble and expense in assembling 
than the actual saving in freight amounts to. 

The specifications for packing of the General Engi- 
neer Depot of the War Department contain the following 
paragraphs : 

"Machines will preferably be shipped complete when 
weight and space occupied are not objectionable. Small 
and fragile parts will generally be demounted and packed 
with proper care, in a compartment built into the large 
case. Other small detached parts should be bolted or 
securely fixed to the cross bars or supports, if not packed 
in a compartment of the main box. 

"When machinery is knocked down, dismantled parts 
will be marked with a number of ample size and easily 
seen. Bolts and screws will be greased and put back 



334 EXPORT PACKING 

into their proper places. Each key will be taped in the 
key seat. Uncovered oil holes and tapped holes will be 
filled with pine pings driven in to exclude dirt." 

An English authority offers the following : ' * Erecting 
troubles often come from corresponding parts of the 
right and left hand sides of the machine being inter- 
changeable. This can be prevented by adding the letter 
'L' or 'X' on left hand pieces. A paint should be 
used that will easily wash off after erection. White lead 
and turpentine are very satisfactory." 

To what extent a machine should be dismounted 
depends chiefly on the character of the machine and its 
destination. In a general way, where any comparatively 
fragile part stands out from a more solid mass it should 
be dismounted and packed separately. Where light open 
framework gives a machine great bulk with compara- 
tively little weight, it should be taken apart and the 
various pieces packed flat. Fragile parts and accessories 
should be dismounted, greased, wrapped in oiled paper 
and tucked securely away in the body of the machine. 
All polished parts of the framework should be greased 
and machined parts wrapped with two or three layers 
of straw rope, when comparatively rough machines for 
short journeys are shipped without box, as is sometimes 
done. In taking a machine apart, the packer should 
always keep in mind continually the question of how it 
shall be reassembled. Bolts and set screws should, when- 
ever possible, be put back into the places where they 
belong, each key. should be kept to its own wheel, but as 
it is impossible to tie a key securely, a wooden plug 
should be driven tight into the bore and the key driven 
into the plug; or the key may be put in a canvas bag and 
attached to the shaft or wheel. Uncovered oil holes and 
tapped holes should be fitted with a wooden peg to keep 
out dirt and where shafts enter bearings a few strands 
of yarn should be wrapped around the shaft for the same 
purpose. 

A large export firm on our Pacific Coast issues a 
circular to makers of machines whose products it may 




Courtesy of Norton Co. 
How the Machine is Held in Place. 

This picture is. taken from a position slightly above the machine and illus- 
trates the method of holding it in place in the box. 




Courtesy of Norton, Co. 
The Disassembled Machine in Complete Shipment. 

The entire sh^ment ready to be placed aboard cars. In this picture the 
method of marking is also plainly shown. 

335 




Courtesy of Worthington Pump and Machinery Corp. 

Packing a Power Pump. 

Vertical triplex power pump set on 3" x 6" spruce timbers for skidding, 
cross brace is of the same material and size. 



The 




Courtesy of Worthington Pump and Machinery Corp. 
Mounting the Pump on Platform. 

The pump is mounted on skids with proper blocking underneath, ready for 
framing and boxing. Platform is of very rigid construction. Note that dis- 
charge air chamber has been removed from pump and is bolted and blocked 
to platform underneath machine. It is the practice to carefully pack all 
accessories in small boxes placed under machine. 

336 



THE PACKING OF MACHINERY 337 

order for export, from which the following is to be noted : 

"Each machine and all parts thereof, when the same 
are not shipped attached to the individual machine, shall 
be marked with the same item number that is shown on 
the order list. This applies also to any and all equip- 
ment to which an item number is assigned on the order. 
The numbering shall be done in the following manner: 

"All large and heavy parts shall be marked with let- 
ters at least 2" in height, in a color contrasting to the 
body color, in four different places. All small parts shall 
have a metal tag not less than I%"x3" attached thereto 
with No. 16 gauge annealed wire. These tags shall be 
marked with the item number by punching or raised let- 
ters y 2 " m height. In no case is paint to be used for 
marking tags. All small parts, or anything that tags and 
paint cannot be used on for marking, shall have the item 
number stamped thereon in a place that is not injurious 
and is clearly visible. Shafting shall have the number 
stamped on each end. This stamping shall be in letters 
at least y 2 " in height.' ' 

Protection of Bright Parts. — From the circular of the 
Pacific Coast exporter who has just been quoted, the fol- 
lowing paragraph is also to be noted: 

"All exposed faces of machinery or machinery parts 
that are planed, polished or otherwise finished, shall be 
covered with a pure white lead and boiled linseed oil, 
with sufficient drier to harden properly. All interior 
faces of machinery or machinery parts that are planed, 
polished or otherwise finished, such as cylinders, shall 
be protected by a coating of petroleum jelly. All deli- 
cate machine parts shall be first wrapped in oil-soaked 
cheesecloth, then wrapped with burlap and sewed before 
boxing. ' ' 

The specifications of the General Engineer Depot 
include the following: "Exposed surfaces of machined 
parts shall be protected with a rust-preventing coating, 
free from acid, which expands easily, sets quickly to a 
sufficient firmness, and dissolves readily when wiped 
down with oil, turpentine or petroleum. Adequate wood 



338 EXPORT PACKING 

covers or lagging will also be used when found necessary. 

1 ' When bearings are used as supports, block supports 
are prepared; (1) support points will be slushed, (2) a 
zinc plate will be laid thereon, (3) carriage cloth or oil- 
cloth will be laid on the zinc, finished side to the zinc, 
aiid the other side slushed to receive the shaft.' ' 

A representative of the High Commission of a great 
foreign government which has offices in New York City, 
submits among his recommendations for the packing of 
machinery this advice as to the protection of bright 
parts: "Care should be taken to well protect the con- 
tents of the crates against moisture by properly covering 
all bright metal parts with a rust preventative, of which 
there are several kinds on the market. In the case of 
pieces of heavy machinery which are shipped uncrated, 
one of the best rust preventatives is a mixture of white 
lead and tallow. This mixture has the disadvantage of 
being difficult to remove. Among the rust preventatives 
used by the different automobile companies may be men- 
tioned such compounds as coral compound, cedarolium 
compound, glenmore compound, etc. Some of these com- 
pounds are easier to remove than others, and in many 
cases it is necessary to wash the parts in steaming 
hot soda tanks in order to remove these protective 
compounds." 

The English authority already quoted says that in 
coating bright parts it is of the utmost importance to 
remember that the machines may not only be exposed to. 
rain and an occasional dose of salt water during their 
journey, but that in passing through custom houses cases 
may be opened and the coating, if not sufficiently firm, 
may be rubbed off in places, while even after arrival the 
cases may stand for some time before they can be 
unpacked. 

Packing of Small Parts. — Instructions issued to 
American manufacturers by the High Commission of one 
of the great foreign governments include the following: 

"In connection with the boxing of parts it is quite 
important that all small parts be contained in well water- 




Courtesy of Worthington Pump and Machinery Corp. 
Completed Framework of Case. 

Illustrates further steps in packing the same machine as shown in previous 
illustration. Framework is ready for boards, the uprights being securely spiked 
fo platform and braced where necessary against various parts of machine. 
With additional bracing afforded by case itself this provides very rigid con- 
struction. 




Courtesy of Worthington Pump and Machinery Corp. 
Case Containing Steam Pump. 

Top and one side of case are removed to show method of packing. Note 
especially manner in which pump is supported in case by blocks placed under 
solid flanged portions, keeping feet from touching platform. Note also that 
entire weight of pump is not carried by bottom of case as sides help support 
weight by cross braces nailed to side boards. Top cross pieces also hold pump 
in firm position, Note compactness of case in relation to bulk of material. 

339 




Crate No. 1 contains the side frames. 
of construction fully described in text. 



Courtesy of The Challenge Machinery Company. 
Crating Parts of Printing Press. 

Crate No: 2 the center girts. Method 



. 



nri nr 






Courtesy of The Challenge Machinery Company. 
Packing Printing Press Parts. 

Crate No. 3 contains the troughs. Box No. k contains the cylinder; No. 5 
contains all small parts; No. 6 contains the fountain. Method of packing fully 
described in text. 

340 



THE PACKING OF MACHINEEY 341 

proofed bags; that all threaded parts be well protected 
against injury by contact with other parts. All finished 
or ground parts should be separately packed to avoid 
damage to finished surfaces. The tags designating the 
names and numbers of the different parts should be of 
such material that they will not be damaged by oil or 
water, and in this connection it may be mentioned that the 
use of aluminum or other metal tags is being generally 
adopted. A packing list containing the contents of all 
crates, boxes or packages should always be well secured 
in a prominent place in the interior of the box; also, it 
is desirable that a copy of such a list, when practicable, 
be well secured to the outside of the crate or box, covered 
with galvanized sheet iron or other suitable protection. " 

The utmost care is required in making certain that 
all parts are shipped and are so shipped that they will 
arrive safely and complete, as will be realized from a 
consideration of the great loss which may be occasioned 
should the parts be lost or damaged en route. A machine 
arriving minus essential parts is utterly useless until 
new parts can be secured, which may entail months of 
delay, which in turn may mean excessive pecuniary loss, 
as, for example, when a mill or factory is being equipped. 

Inside Bracing and Packing. — The General Engineer 
Depot of the War Department among its specifications 
publishes the following: 

"Machinery itself should be covered with water-proof- 
ing paper or oilcloth to prevent damage from moisture. 
Machinery should be thoroughly slushed with suitable 
protective compound. All loose or detached parts should 
be firmly and securely fixed to prevent dislodgement 
during transit. All finished surfaces to be amply pro- 
tected against injury from salt air and water. 

1 ' Packages containing machinery, or parts, should be 
securely blocked in the case or crate to prevent 
movement. 

" Electrical and mechanical apparatus to be solidly 
packed in excelsior, straw, salt hay, or other filler in a 
solid box with paneled ends, securely nailed and then 



342 EXPORT PACKING 

reenforced with % by 3-inch battens around the sides 
at the ends, with 1-inch by No. 18 gauge strap iron all 
the way around the battens, ends lapping at least 6 inches. 

" Projecting portions of heavy castings having narrow 
necks must be taken off, as they will break off by jarring. 

"Gray iron extended parts must be kept one-half to 
one inch away from covering, as the spring of boards 
will cause breakage. 

"Where light gray iron castings or breakable machine 
parts are near the outside of a package, brace the case 
so that there may be always one inch clearance between 
the articles and the case. 

"Two heavy cast pieces must not rest together, but 
must be cushioned or separated by wood brace or block. 

"Cross timbers which hold heavy articles in place 
should be socketed at the ends where there is danger of 
splitting if nails only are used. 

"Heavy items must be firmly bolted to skids or floor- 
ing; nothing shall be hung from sides of boxes." Unoc- 
cupied space in packing boxes must be thoroughly braced. 

"Articles subject to damage by moisture shall be ade- 
quately protected. 

' ' Switchboards shall be packed in two boxes, the inner 
box being floated in the outer box, 3" clear space between, 
this space packed with excelsior. The inner box has 
supports; upon these is laid the switchboard with 
cigarettes between; these cigarettes are two or three 
inches in diameter, of excelsior rolled in paper, pieces 
are then forced down over the cigarettes and nailed to 
the sides. The inner box is completed, floated in the 
outer box, and this properly secured." 

The instructions of the foreign government's High 
Commission, which have already been quoted, state in 
this connection: "It may be mentioned in connection with 
packing that the use of the excelsior which was formerly 
used to quite an extent has now been practically elim- 
inated, as it is not necessary to make use of such mate- 
rial when the contents of the boxes are well secured in 
place; also, it may be noted that excelsior may be con- 



THE PACKING OF MACHINERY 343 

sidered as being subject to spontaneous combustion. ' ' 

An English authority may be quoted as follows : ' ' The 
sweating which takes place on board ship and affects the 
cases themselves also attacks their contents, especially 
the parts of machinery to which it is not possible to 
apply slush or the usual rust preventatives. In no case 
should machinery be packed with sawdust or wood chips 
when these materials can get among the parts of the 
gearings, as this occasions the receiver an endless amount 
of trouble and unnecessary annoyance." 

Shipping Weights. — The War Department in its over- 
seas shipments advised that " packages over 1,000 pounds 
or less than 200 pounds are to be avoided when prac- 
ticable." Of course, it is not always practicable to 
reduce weights to this limit, and where port and interior 
transportation facilities at destination are such as to 
permit the easy handling of heavy packages there is no 
objection to bulk. It must also be remembered that a 
heavy case weighing perhaps several tons cannot be 
thrown around and handled so roughly during transit 
as can smaller cases ; and that the officers of ships always 
pay particular and personal attention to the handling of 
such extremely heavy cases, because of the damage which 
would be done to their own vessel and to lighters or quays 
should freight of this description be suddenly dropped 
on decks or down hatchways into the holds of vessels. 

An English authority calls attention to the packing 
in small cases sometimes required : 

"In packing shipments for crude, rough transporta- 
tion to interior and almost inaccessible points in such 
countries as Colombia, to mines in other countries simi- 
larly situated in regard to transportation facilities, it is 
necessary to remember that machines should be disunited 
and heavy parts reduced to the lightest weight possible, 
because bulky and heavier pieces are always left by 
muleteers for long periods while the lighter packages 
are first transported. Of course, there are some struc- 
tural parts, such as base castings, where the size' and 
weight are fixed quantities and which it is impossible to 



344 EXPORT PACKING 

transport on muleback. Such parts should be stripped 
of everything, including bolts, nuts and removable parts, 
and then bolted on skids both top and bottom so that 
they can be hauled by mules or oxen as the custom is in 
these countries for interior deliveries. Machines des- 
tined for such interior points are frequently exposed to 
the weather for many days, heavy rains succeeded by 
intense heat, and sometimes such machinery may be 
covered, after two or three weeks' exposure, with several 
inches of mud. " 

Construction of Cases and Crates. — One fact which 
must always be taken into consideration in packing ma- 
chinery for export is the fact that cases or crates are as 
likely as not to be turned on their sides or even stowed 
upside down. This general subject has already been 
thoroughly treated in other pages of this volume. It is, 
however, believed desirable to reprint at this point 
further observations and instructions bearing on the 
construction of cases and crates, even at the risk of 
repetition. 

The following advice is transmitted by the New York 
representative of the High Commission of a foreign gov- 
ernment from whose communications on the subject of 
export packing quotations have already been made: 

"For shipping heavy material which is subject to 
damage in transit and deterioration if exposed to the 
weather, the following principles should be adhered to 
in crating such material: 

"Depending upon the size of the crates containing 
automobiles, trucks or other large heavy machines, these 
crates should be constructed of good material only and 
have such a general strength that they can resist the 
bending and twisting forces which may be applied to 
them when they are handhd in loading and unloading, 
carried in slings, etc. This means that the floors of these 
crates shall be amply thick, of double thickness planking 
in many cases, and that the bottom, sides, ends and top 
of the crate be well strengthened by interior bracing 
and that the construction of the corners be such that the 




Courtesy of Babcock Printing Press Mfg. Co. 

Packing a Printing Press. 

A number 6 Standard track being placed in the skeleton of its crate. The 
crate is made of material 1%" thick. Note how the track is bedded in excelsior. 




Courtesy of Babcock Printing Press Mfg. Co, 

Completed Crate for Track. 

The track shown in the previous illustration completely crated a/nd in the 
process of being moved from box shop to car. 

345 




Courtesy of Babcock Printing Press Mfg. Co. 
Packing Units of Printing Press. 

The "outrigger" box on a number 6 Standard Press. The balance wheel can 
be seen beneath the feeder's platform. Note the method of placing parts in 
boxes. Box is made of boards 1%" thick. Measurements over all 3' w 4' & h'> 




Courtesy of Babcock Printing Press Mfg. Co. 

A Crated Printing Press Side Frame. 

The material from which this crate is made is 1*4" thick. Note that three 
thicknesses of this material are placed crosswise of each other on each side of 
frame. A crate containing a pair of feed table brackets' 1 stands at left. 

346 



THE PACKING OF MACHINERY 347 

bottom, sides, ends and top are well tied together. In 
this connection it is preferable that lag screws or bolts 
be used as fastenings in the corners rather than nails; 
also, that the bracing of the sides and the ends consist 
of both diagonal and vertical braces. 

"Not less than three skids of large cross section and 
of a length equal to the total length of the crate should 
be fitted to the bottom of the crate. The transverse 
strength of the crate must be such that the crate can 
resist the effect of crushing when it is raised with slings. 
Suitable chocks, blocks, etc., must be securely fastened 
to the bottom or floor of the crate, to which chocks, blocks, 
etc., can be attached the truck or other machinery con- 
tained in the crate in such a way as to insure that there 
will be no movement of this machinery. In addition to 
the above mentioned attachments to the bottom of the 
crate, it is often desirable that the contents of the crate 
be braced firmly in place with such additional shores or 
chocks as may be necessary to prevent all tendency to 
movement. 

"It is important that the crate have sufficient local 
strength to avoid damage to its contents if small heavy 
articles are placed on top. For example, in some ship- 
ments, owing to carelessness on the part of the steve- 
dores, heavy coils of barbed wire were often placed on the 
tops of crates containing machines, with a consequent 
damage to the contents of these crates. 

"It is desirable to have the sides and top of the crate 
made of matched boards rather than plain boards, 
although satisfactory crates are often constructed by 
using plain boards in conjunction with a good grade of 
strong waterproof paper. It is desirable to use such 
waterproof paper on the bottom, sides, ends and top of 
the crates, although when matched boards are used it is 
often omitted on the sides and ends." 

The specifications of the General Engineer Depot of 
the War Department, among other things, provide that 
all packing should be as light in weight as possible and 
cubic contents kept to a minimum in order to economize 



348 EXPORT PACKING 

shipping space; but the paramount consideration must 
always be safe handling. Brittle pine crates of half- 
inch board are worthless. 

"Each case or crate should be firmly bound with strap 
or band iron. Straps should be not less than one inch 
wide No. 18 gauge. Ends should overlap at least 6 inches. 

i i All lumber used in boxing and packing to be strictly 
sound and of such dimensions as to insure full protection 
under rough handling. Under no circumstances should 
outside boxing be less than 13/16 inch thick. 

"Packages over 300 pounds should be packed in not 
less than 2-inch stock, additional straps and bindings to 
be used at every 2y 2 inches for boxes exceeding 3 feet 
in length. 

"Boxes 600 pounds weight or over shall have 4x4-inch 
skids, top and bottom of box, securely bolted together 
with %-inch diameter bolts, and these bolts, wherever 
possible, should extend entirely through the box. To 
prevent shifting, ends of box must be securely braced 
inside. 

"Use yellow pine, gum, white pine, spruce and hem- 
lock lumber surfaced one or more sides. This gives a 
desirable uniformity of thickness and makes easy sten- 
ciling on more than one face of the package. 

"Use cement coated or barbed wire nails — 8-penny 

and 10-penny. This is important to make the nails hold. 

Not less than two in end of any board and not over four 

inches apart in wide boards. Six-inch boards, three nails. 

. "Use corner posts in all packages." 

From Siberia advice is given that all cases weighing 
over 500 pounds be fitted with skids as there is no modern 
freight handling machinery in eastern Siberia, and all 
shipments for interior cities should receive extra strong 
packing as, in addition to the crude methods of handling 
cargo at Vladivostok, they are subject to very much 
rougher handling in unloading from the railway cars 
into river barges and again at landing; it is very likely 
that they will again receive rough handling in long hauls 
in primitive carts before reaching their destination. 



THE PACKING OF MACHINERY 349 

Packing of Machine Tools. — American machine tool 
manufacturers have for many years devoted the closest 
attention to disassembling, and export packages of this 
class of machinery give very interesting solutions of this 
particular problem. In addition, the machine tool pre- 
sents very nice questions of proper balancing and bracing 
as well as the packing of the stripped portions. We 
find machinery of this character provided with the most 
delicate adjustments. Proper protection of the different 
surfaces is also most highly essential and this presents 
another angle of the packing problem. 

Through the kindness of a prominent manufacturer, 
several photographs are reproduced in connection with 
this chapter which show practice that is the result of 
many years' experience constantly checked with results 
from the consignees ' standpoint. A study of the bracing 
of the cases and of the machine, as shown in these photo- 
graphs, will be of great value to all interested in export 
packing. By comparing the cubic contents of the assem- 
bled machine with the completed export boxes (see cuts 
appearing on pages 328 and 335) some idea will be gath- 
ered of the extent to which the machine in question, in 
process of being shipped to Holland, has been stripped 
and the care with which it has been packed. All finished 
surfaces throughout the machine are covered with a spe- 
cial slushing compound, developed by this particular 
manufacturer for his own use, and which has been found 
to successfully resist ravages of moisture and salt air. 

Hoisting Machinery. — Among many interesting let- 
ters which have been received detailing practices of 
experienced manufacturers in the export packing of their 
products, the following from a well known manufacturer 
of hoisting machinery is notable : ' ' No general rule can 
ever be laid down for export packing, because the size 
of the lumber always depends upon the weight, shape 
and size of the piece boxed. The first thing to en- 
sure is a strong envelope and then to secure the part 
which goes into the envelope with cross bracing in such 
a manner that it is absolutely tight, so that jerks, jars 



350 EXPORT PACKING 

and slamming around cannot loosen it and cause it 
to slip and slide around until it breaks the box. The 
object is, of course, to provide packing that will stand 
rough usage in transit ; this is a first consideration, but it • 
must be obtained at minimum cost and with minimum 
weight. We have found in our experience that crates 
will not stand up under handling and do not furnish 
adequate opportunities for inside bracing, nor do they 
furnish protection against weather, and are often 
actually torn off by the use of hooks or broken by 
handling in slings. Flat straps securely fastened by 
nails and passed entirely around the case should be used. 
Corner straps and wire straps are entirely inadequate. 
For marking we use a stencil cutting machine but where 
foreign alphabets are used, such as the Russian, Chinese, 
etc., we have a draftsman make a drawing of the mark, 
from which a brass stencil is made." 

Another large shipper of hoisting machinery writes 
of his experience and practice in shipping as follows: 
"On boxes or crates ranging from three to five feet 
square and approximately six to eight feet in length, 
carrying a weight of from two to four tons, the box or 
crate should be made with bottom skids of 3"x4" or 4"x4" 
pine lumber beveled at the ends to permit application of 
slings and rollers. The floor of our boxes is made of 
2-inch plank, vertical posts of from 2"x4" to 3"x4" tim- 
bers bolted directly to the bottom skids. Sides, tops and 
ends of our cases we make from 1%-inch S2S pine. 
Boxes carrying a greater weight than four tons must be 
made from very heavy lumber for skids, vertical posts, 
sides, tops and ends, some of our cases having 8"x8" 
skids and 6"x6" posts with 2-inch plank for the sides, 
tops and ends. Large pieces of machinery are bolted to 
the floor, sides or ends, or securely held by blocking 
and strap iron to prevent shifting. Small parts are 
invariably packed in straw or excelsior and always- 
wrapped in oilcloth or waterproof paper when of a char- 
acter likely to be damaged by moisture. Further water- 
proofing is provided by the use of tarred paper inside 




Courtesy of Chandler & Price Co, 
Method of Interior Bracing. 

Case contains printing press packed for export. Platform has as its base 
heavy 2" boards on which at either end is placed a 2" x 6" cleat. Space be- 
tween cleats is filled by 1" boards, making a strong and substantial platform. 
Sides of case are made of unplaced l" selected Norway pine. Machine is bolted 
to platform and case braced in all directions by 2" x V. stuff. 




Courtesy of Chandler & Price Co. 
Printing Press Packed for Muleback 
This is the same press shown in previous illustration. 

351 




Courtesy of Boston Wire Stitcher Co. 
Packing of Wire Stitching Machine. 

Pieces shown are the interior bracing before being placed in case where they 
are identified by corresponding numbers. For detailed description see text. 



352 



THE PACKING OF MACHINERY 353 

the cases. All parts are given from one to two coats of 
paint and bright parts are slushed with a compound made 
of white lead and tallow." 

Steam Pumps. — Several photographs illustrating the 
export packing of a large manufacturer of steam pumps 
and similar machinery are reproduced on pages 336 and 
339. Writing in regard to its packing the company in 
question states that the following features of its prac- 
tice are to be noted in addition to the details explained 
in the captions : In the cut on page 336, it is to be noted 
that the discharge air chamber has been removed and is 
bolted and blocked to the platform underneath the ma- 
chine. All accessories, such as speed governor, lubri- 
cators, oil cups, wrenches, etc., are packed in small boxes 
which are also placed underneath the machine in order to 
utilize space to best advantage. Another cut (page 339) 
directs special attention to the manner in which the steam 
pump is supported inside the case by blocks placed under 
the solid flanged portions of the pump, keeping the feet 
from touching the bottom. The entire weight is not 
carried by the bottom of the case as the sides help sup- 
port the weight by the cross braces nailed to them. The 
top cross braces are so designed as to hold the pump 
firmly against lateral movements. This case is believed 
to be as compact as possible under the circumstances, 
the important feature in saving freight rates. Another 
photograph supplied by this manufacturer, reproduced 
at top of page 336, illustrates a vertical triplex power 
pump mounted on 3"x6" spruce skids. The cross brace 
shown is of the same material and size. 

Extra Heavy Machinery. — No general rules can be 
laid down as to the packing or lack of packing or even 
the special protection that is required in exporting large 
and heavy machinery, especially when of irregular 
shapes. A manufacturer of machinery of this descrip- 
tion writes that it is practically impossible to construct 
a package that will stand the strain of the weight in 
handling with ropes and slings and it is, therefore, very 
much better frequently to use as little crating as possible 



354 EXPORT PACKING 

on such pieces, as in some instances crating would be 
certain to give way and permit shocks which might cause 
the lines to slip or part. Photographs supplied by this 
manufacturer, which are reproduced on pages 371, 602, 
are submitted as illustrating the reasonableness of the 
claim made. It is stated that the practice is to place 
boards over finished bored holes and bearings, and to 
wrap with burlap and protect by narrow strips of wood 
fastened together with steel bands, the smooth finished 
surfaces, as on shafts, etc. All such machinery is dis- 
mantled or knocked down so far as possible to make the 
individual pieces of the lightest weight. Each individual 
piece is stenciled with paint in good sized letters and 
figures showing consigning marks, over all dimensions 
and gross weights. 

The packing of large pieces, boilers, etc., may be 
illustrated by the packing shown on page 371, of a con- 
denser prepared for export shipment by a prominent 
American manufacturer. In this case the saddles and 
feet are not cast integral with the shell. The cut is 
felt to adequately explain the packing believed necessary 
and desirable. 

Printing Presses. — It is doubtful if any one class of 
American machinery has been more widely distributed 
all over the world than have our printing presses. The 
United States is without doubt the country of greatest 
progress in the graphic arts, and the spur has been con- 
stantly applied to the production of machinery that has 
expressed high attainment in economy, efficiency and 
simplicity. A number of American manufacturers of 
printing machinery have a worldwide distribution of 
their products, and have supplied some interesting pho- 
tographs of their export packing methods and practices 
which are reproduced in connection with this -chapter. 

The printing press varies from a fairly light machine 
to one weighing a number of tons, and while it is not a 
piece of precision machinery, it is none the less one of 
fine adjustments to which careful attention must be 
given in packing. One well known manufacturer sup- 



THE PACKING OP MACHINERY 355 

plies us with photographs (see pages 345 and 346), and 
writes: "We have found after thorough investigation 
that the chief cause for broken parts has been due to their 
being packed too tightly in the vessel; that when large 
parts, like frames, tracks, etc., were broken it was not 
safe merely to make the cases of heavier lumber. 

"Relative to the material used, we may say that we 
have always felt that spruce was best. It is very tough, 
does not split readily and is strong — a combination which 
is not found in many of the ordinary hard woods used for 
boxing. For export boxes we use from l^-inch up to 
1%-inch lumber and in the vital places we use two boards, 
spiking them firmly together. A plank made of two thick- 
nesses thus spiked together is often far stronger than a 
single plank, although this is only one reason for using 
this method, the other being our own convenience in not 
having to carry so many different sizes of lumber in 
stock. ' ' 

Other cuts illustrating the packing of printing ma- 
chinery by another manufacturer are shown herewith 
(page 351), and are adequately explained by the captions 
to these cuts. 

Still other illustrations of the packing of printing 
presses have been supplied by a third manufacturer in 
the two cuts appearing on page 340 which show six dif- 
ferent packages. The placards attached showing weights 
in pounds and kilos were merely supplied for the pur- 
pose of photographing, in order to give the reader an 
idea of the weight of each package in connection with 
the quality of the packing furnished. In reference to 
these packages, further details are necessary than it is 
possible to supply in suitable captions to the cuts. The 
manufacturer supplies the following data: 

"Crate No. 1 contains side frames and is made by 
taking two pieces 2"x4"x7' long. Fasten these together 
with five cleats r'x6"xl3%" in such a manner that the 
corners are flush. The top consists of two pieces; one, 
I"x6"x7' and one, l"x7y 2 "xT. Fasten together with 
three cleats I"x6"xl3y 2 " ; then fill in with I"x6"xl3y 2 " 



356 EXPORT PACKING 

cleats until top is solid. The ends are composed of three 
pieces, each I"x8"xl5" nailed across the two upright 
sides. The sides are composed of seven pieces, each 1" 
x8"x4'3", making fourteen pieces in all. All of the side 
pieces on each side are long enough so that the end is 
nailed to the cleats on top and bottom. Three pieces 
I"x8"x7'2" are then nailed on each side lengthwise, full 
length of the crate — one in the center ; one 4%" from the 
top and the other 2" from the bottom. 

"The inside braces are made as follows: Two pieces 
%"x8%"xl6" ', with a small cleat between at each end, 
thus forming a space between, are nailed together and 
placed inside between the front and back part of the 
frames with a %" bolt running completely through the 
two frames, sideboards, and brace to hold this brace 
in position. There is one of these braces at each end. 
One piece 2"x8%"x7' is nailed to the bottom on the inside 
to keep bottom of frames apart. One piece %"x8"x4', 
hardwood, is nailed upright between center of the two 
side frames to keep frames from spreading. Two cleats 
\"y&"±\§y± are nailed to this upright and the ends nailed 
to the upright side pieces. Two pieces I"x7"x8", with 
small cleats between, are nailed together and placed be- 
tween the cylinder boxes in side frames, and a %" x 18" 
bolt running completely through the sides, cylinder boxes 
and braces. 

' l Nine iron bands, each 28" long are nailed, three 
each, over top, bottom and ends, overlapping 4" on each 
side. Formerly these merely extended over the corners 
and not completely across the ends, bottom and top. 

"Crate No. 2 contains center girts. Each end con- 
sists of two pieces, each 2"x5"x24y 2 " and 2"x4"x24y 2 ", 
the former being on the gear side and the latter on the 
opposite side. Inside of these, to hold them together, 
are nailed two cleats each I"x6"xl6", in such a manner 
as to allow the end of the main gear shaft to extend up 
between the 2" end pieces. Two %" bolt holes are made 
through the 2"x5" and 2"x4" end pieces at each end of 
the crate. Through these holes, %"x2y 2 " cap screws 




Courtesy of Sleeper and Hartley, Inc. 

(1 & 2) Base of Case for Nail Machine. 

The base consists of 3 heavy longitudinal skids A, A 1 , A 2 , covered by a platform 
of heavy boards, B. An additional feature of the base (illustration 2,- end view 
of base) is a temporarily attached framework C, shown in illustration 3 as the 
framework for the cover. 




(3) 



W 



Courtesy of Sleeper and Hartley, Inc. 
Framework of Case. 



Machine is lowered into position on base and bolted thereto. Central sup- 
port D, which is long enough to stretch across two base skids, is put in place 
and wooden wedges are driven between D and bottom of machine to prevent 
shrinking of support. Upright corner boards E } E 1 , E 2 , E 3 , upper framework C, 
side supports F, end supports G, and supporting timbers H t H>, H 2 , etc., q/rq 
nailed into position. 

357 




Courtesy of Sleeper and Hartley, Inc. 
(4) Another View of Framework of Case. 
This illustration shows side of case opposite to that reproduced in S. 




(5) 



Courtesy of Sleeper and Hartley, Inc. 
The Completed Case. 



Note that upper corners of case K are bev ] elled off to prevent splintering of 
corner cover boards by angular blows. Heavy band iron is carried around 
case and over top in two places, L. The skids are bevelled off and end covering 
boards are not allowed to go down over ends of skids; side boards do not touch 
floor within half an inch. 

358 



THE PACKING OF MACHINEKY 359 

which are used with the machine are placed in order to 
hold the contents solid. These bolts go into the tapped 
holes in the center girt. Each side is composed of three 
pieces, each r'x6"x4'2". Two of these are nailed to the 
ends so that they are flush with the end pieces at the 
corners, the other one being equal distance between. 
The top consists of seven pieces I"x6"xl9", nailed to 
sides. The bottom is composed of three pieces l"x6" 
x4'2", nailed to ends lengthwise, for skids. For the in- 
side braces two pieces 2"x3"xl6" are nailed to each side 
piece to hold the gears in place. The crate is then en- 
circled at each end with an iron band 6' long. Twelve 
bands 11" long are used at side and end pieces. 

" Crate No. 3 contains the troughs. Bottom is made 
of two skids 2x4 inches, 6 feet 6 inches in length, cleated 
together with five cleats each 1x6x12 inches, end cleats 
being one inch from the end of skids. The sides are 
composed of four pieces, each 1x6 inches and 6 feet 6 
inches in length, cleated together with five cleats on each 
side lx6xl9 1 /2 inches, the sides being nailed to the bottom 
with the cleats inward. The top is made from eight pieces 
lxSxlT 1 /^ inches nailed across to the sides of the crate. 
Two pieces 1x6 inches, 6 feet 6 inches long, are then 
nailed lengthwise on top to form skids. The ends are 
made of 1x8 inches stuff, 14V 2 inches long or cut to fit 
from side to side. Three iron bands are then nailed com- 
pletely around the center and ends of the crate. 

"Box No. 4 contains the cylinder of press whose 
packing is now being described. The bottom of this box 
consists of two pieces 2x4 inches, 4 feet 10 inches in 
length, nailed together with boards running crosswise 17 
inches long, making the size of the bottom 17 inches by 4 
feet 10 inches. The top is made of exactly the same size 
material. The sides are made of boards 16 inches in 
length nailed to top and bottom, all boards being flush 
at the ends. The ends consist of 16-inch boards cross- 
wise from top to bottom. Four cleats 1x4 inches and 4 
feet 10 inches long, are nailed on the sides at the corners 
the full length of the box. Between these cleats there 



360 EXPORT PACKING 

are nailed three cleats on each side 1x4x11 inches, the 
ends of the latter meeting the longer cleats. One of these 
cleats on each side is in the center of the box, the other 
four being at the corners. Iron bands are placed 
completely around the ends and center of the box over 
the 11-inch cleats. 

"Box No. 5 contains small parts of this printing 
press. The ends of the box are made 16 inches deep of 
lx28-inch boards, cleated together with lx4-inch cleats 
20 inches long, the latter extending 1 inch on each end 
but flush with the ends of the boards. The sides are 5 
feet 10 inches long, 16 inches wide, of 1-inch boards nailed 
to the ends flush with the cleats of the latter. The top 
and bottom are made of 1-inch boards, 5 feet 10 inches 
long by 30 inches wide, nailed to the ends. Four cleats 
30 inches long are then nailed across the bottom, and the 
same on the top, two of them being at the corners, the 
other two at equal distances between. The eight side 
cleats are long enough to overlap the top and bottom 
cleats. The connecting top, bottom and side cleats are 
reenforced at the corners with bands 12 inches long. 
Four bands are nailed over each end at the corners bind- 
ing the end cleats to the top and bottom cleats. Two 
cleats I"x6"x5'10" are nailed to one side of the box and 
these serve as skids. Four iron bands approximately 
8" long are nailed to each end of skids, lapping 4" over 
the end of box. 

"Box No. 6 contains fountain, and is made with 
two one piece ends, each 8y 2 x8x2 inches. The sides are 
also preferably in one piece 55x8x1 inch. The top and 
bottom are made of stuff 55x1014x1 inch. 

"Three iron bands 40" long are nailed completely 
around the box, one at each end and the other around 
the center. 

"The lumber used is so-called hard wood, usually 
gum. By referring to boxes Nos. 1, 3, 4, and 5 it will be 
noticed that on one side at least the cleats run full length 
of box, serving as skids so that the box can be handled on 
rollers when necessary. On boxes 2 and 6 these skid- 



THE PACKING OF MACHINERY 361 

cleats are not necessary as the boards run the long way 
of box. Our theory is that some provision should be 
made so that every box can be handled on rollers when 
required. ' ' 

Wire Stitching Machinery. — The wire stitching ma- 
chine is a good example of a small machine that re- 
quires very careful export packing. While by no means 
fragile or delicate, as are precision machinery and 
instruments, it is none the less a highly specialized piece 
of machinery which must be carefully packed if fine 
adjustments are to be conserved and the machine is to 
arrive at destination in good condition. It has many 
bright and nickeled parts and must be carefully pro- 
tected by proper slushing in addition to being thoroughly 
wrapped in waterproof paper. The wedging used inside 
the case must positively guarantee against motion, or 
damage would inevitably result. The accompanying 
photograph (page 352) is supplied by a concern which 
has made an exhaustive study of suitable export packing 
for its machinery. The blocking or wedges shown both 
outside the case and in position in the packed case, 
bearing duplicate numbers, display the thought which 
has been given to the question of suitable wedging for 
the machine. In explaining the method of packing this 
company writes : * ' The finished parts are coated with a 
slushing grease and then wrapped in waterproof paper. 
The blocking No 1 is first nailed together, consisting of 
three pieces, and is then placed in position inside the 
case, one end only showing in the photograph, that being 
the long end. The machine is then placed in position so 
that the back is firmly locked in Notch A of block No. 1. 
The next process is the bolting of the machine to the 
bottom with %x3 1 /2-inch carriage bolts. Block No. 2, 
with notch as shown, is then placed over the top of the 
frame and pressed down firmly. Block No. 3 is used 
to hold the machine against No. 1, and block No. 4 holds 
the machine down and acts as an auxiliary to the car- 
riage bolts. The small box shown at the left of the case 
contains the work-table and small parts removed from 



362 EXPORT PACKING 

the head of the machine. It is 26%x5%x3 inches. This 
is nailed in position and block No. 5 is then attached and 
the case is complete as shown and ready for its cover. 
These cases are made of 1 1/16-inch native eastern pine, 
tongued and grooved with tongues glued. The ends are 
cleated and the box nailed with 10-penny cement coated 
wire nails, bound with strap iron on both ends and in the 
center. The particular case shown is 45xl5 1 /2x25 inches 
inside measurement." 

Wire Working Machinery. — A prominent manufac- 
turing firm, making machinery for working wire, sup- 
plies photographs (see cuts on pages 357, 358, 363 and 
364), with the following notable description of the pack- 
ing, and the methods employed : 

"By way of preface, we might say that we have been 
making shipments for a number of years to Australasia, 
India, China, Japan, South and Central America, the 
British Isles, and the Continent of Europe, as well as 
to the countries bordering the Mediterranean. 

"The methods of packing and boxing which we have 
adopted and which will be illustrated and described 
hereafter, have been such that we have had no complaints 
of breakage from our foreign customers, nor have our 
casings ever been considered insufficient or inadequate. 
On the contrary, we have had a number of unsolicited 
testimonials from foreign customers and agents, compli- 
menting us upon the manner in which our packing has 
withstood the varied conditions of handling, stowing and 
shipping, all over the world. The head of our shipping 
department has had a long and varied experience in con- 
nection with export packing and shipping, and has had 
also a very varied experience at sea and in foreign ports, 
so that he is thoroughly familiar with all the conditions 
of handling and stowing freight on ships, lighters and 
dock, in all of the countries mentioned. 

"Apart from the strength of the base and outer 
casings, our main reliance is placed upon a system of 
strutting or buttressing, whereby the machine is very 
securely supported within the case, so that it will travel 




Courtesy of Sleeper and Hartley, Inc. 

(6) Packing of Spring-Coiling Machine. 

A solid and compact machine weighing 10 tons and having few open spaces. 
Base of case N is made of two thicknesses of board, 1%" and 1%", reenforced 
and fastened to six longitudinal skids. After machine is bolted to base, corner 
supports O and top frame P are nailed into position. Struts and supports R 
and S are placed and firmly nailed. Similar struts T are secured to top frame P. 




Courtesy of Sleeper and Hartley, Inc. 

(7) Framework of Case. 

The same machine as shown in 6, the photograph showing one end of case. 
Note the solid buttresses U which effectually buttress the framing for the 4 
sides and cover against the solid body of the machine. 

363 




Courtesy of Sleeper and Hartley, Inc. 

(8) Buttressing the Framing. 
Another view of machine shown in 6 and 7. Note the solid buttresses U. 




(9) 



Courtesy of Sleeper and Hartley, Inc. 
The Completed Case. 



Note especially the broad band with arrows V indicating center of gravity of 
case and so marked. This indicates the point at which sling chains are to be 
carried around the case in transhipping. 

364 



THE PACKING OF MACHINERY 365 

uninjured, whether stowed on end, on its side, or up- 
side down. 

"The illustrations and descriptions will deal with 
two separate types of machinery. The first will be our 
standard nail machines. These are open-framed ma- 
chines, with a good deal of space in and around them, and 
having the weights concentrated at two or three specific 
points. The machine which we are illustrating and 
describing is our No. 3 size of this machine, the net* 
weight of which is approximately 2,200 pounds. In the 
majority of cases, it is desirable that machines of this 
type be shipped set up, all ready to run, after the slush- 
ing has been cleaned off. 

"As shown in illustration No. 1, it is our custom to 
first provide a platform or base. This base is seen to 
consist of three longitudinal skids or heavy timbers, cov- 
ered by a flooring of heavy boards. These skids are 
marked, respectively, A, A 1 , A 2 , and the flooring is dis- 
tinguished as "B." Upon referring to illustration No. 

2, an end view of this base platform is shown As an 
additional feature on this particular base, a rectangular 
framework will be seen, which is temporarily attached 
to the frame, and designated as "C." The purpose of 
this frame "C" will be clearly seen in illustration No. 

3, where it is shown at the top of the picture in position 
forming the framework for the cover of the case. 

"Parenthetically, we might say that it is our custom 
to make up these complete bases and cover pieces, "C," 
ahead of time, nailing them together temporarily, so that 
they may be stowed away readily. We carry a consider- 
able stock of them on hand, so as to lose as little time as 
possible in packing and shipping, when the machines 
begin to arrive in our shipping department from the 
inspection department. 

' i Returning to the base, it will be noted that the pur- 
pose of the central skid A 1 is to carry the weight of the 
side legs of the machine, giving a solid foundation for it, 
and affording as well a means by which these legs are 
fastened to the skids. In all cases it is desirable that 



366 EXPORT PACKING 

skids be placed below and parallel with the legs of any 
machine for the purpose of supporting them. 

"The machine is lowered into position on the base and 
bolted thereto, and a strong central support, "D," is 
then put in place to support the center of the machine. 
Wooden wedges are driven between the support "D" 
and the bottom of the machine, and are nailed in place. 
These wedges prevent the support shrinking away as the 
lumber dries. The base of the support ' ' D ' ' is made long 
enough to stretch across two of the base skids. The four 
upright corner boards, E, E 1 , E 2 , E 3 , are then nailed in 
place to the foundation, and the upper framework "C" 
is then nailed into place between these uprights. The 
side supports "F" and the end supports "G" are then 
secured firmly into place. 

"The supporting timbers indicated as H, H 1 , H 2 , etc., 
are then fitted and well nailed in position. These tim- 
bers are so placed and disposed about the machine as to 
effectually support and buttress it against the sides of 
the case, so that no movement of the machine can pos- 
sibly occur, whether the case is turned on end, on its 
sides, or upside down. These supporting timbers will, 
of course, vary with the character and type of the ma- 
chine, but in all cases they should be of a good quality of 
lumber, and very firmly secured in place, so that they 
cannot possibly slip in the event of the side boards giving 
way, or of the lumber shrinking in the course of time. 

"Illustration No. 4 shows the opposite side of the 
machine. When all supporting timbers described above 
have been mounted into place, the side boards are then 
added, as shown in illustration No. 5, and when these 
have been completed and securely fastened, the cover, 
"J," is nailed on. 

"It should be noted that in all cases the tongued and 
grooved or what is known in the trade as 1%" matched 
spruce is used for casing. It is desirable that the upper 
corners of the case be beveled off, as shown at "K," so 
as to prevent the corner cover boards splintering by 
angular blows. Heavy band iron, of at least 1" in width, 



THE PACKING OP MACHINERY 367 

is then carried entirely around the case, in two places, 
and is also carried around the cover, in two places, as 
shown in the illustration at "L." These band irons are 
always carried transversely of the boards, so as to hold 
them together. Referring to illustration No. 1, it will 
be seen that the ends of the skids are beveled off, as 
shown at "M," and upon referring to illustration No. 5 
it will be seen that the end covering boards are not 
allowed to go down over the ends of the skids, and that 
the side boards are not allowed to touch the floor within 
half an inch. When so packed and cased, the completed 
box is free to be rolled or handled without injuring the 
ends of the boards forming the sides or ends of the case. 

"The second type of machine with which our descrip- 
tion deals is a solid, compact type of spring coiling ma- 
chine having few, if any, open spaces, very heavy and 
calling for a slightly different method of packing. 

"As shown in photograph No. 6, the base is made up 
of two thicknesses of boards, l 1 ^" and 1%" respectively, 
reenforced and fastened to six longitudinal skids. This 
provides a very substantial platform or base upon which 
the machine is lowered and to which it is bolted firmly. 
The two thicknesses of boards are indicated at "N." 
In this case, it should be said that the machine is one of 
our No. 5 coilers, weighing approximately ten tons. 

"The corner supporting boards "0" are then nailed 
into place with the top frame "P" in position, as in the 
method of casing previously described, and a series of 
struts and supports shown at "R" and "S" in photo- 
graphs Nos. 6 and 7 are put into place and nailed firmly 
on all four sides. At the same time, similar struts "T" 
are secured to the top frame "P." Such a structure 
stiffens the whole case very materially, affording means 
to secure the side and end buttresses and supports, and 
giving at the same time very substantial support to the 
covering boards. 

"Upon this foundation we now proceed to fit in the 
solid buttresses shown in photographs Nos. 6, 7 and 8, 
and indicated at "U," which effectually buttress the 



368 EXPORT PACKING 

framing for the four sides and cover against the solid 
body of the machine. When all the necessary struts and 
supports have been mounted in place and firmly secured, 
and when all of the loose machine parts which are to be 
shipped inside the case have been firmly secured, so that 
they cannot break loose in any way, the side and top 
covers are firmly nailed in position, as previously 
described, and are secured with band iron. Photograph 
No. 9 shows the completed machine. 

"An important point is the broad band with arrows 
shown as "V" in photograph No. 9, which indicates the 
center of gravity of the case and is so marked. This is 
important as it indicates the point at which the sling 
chains are to be carried around the case in transhipping. 

"It is, of course, understood that where shipments 
are being packed for foreign countries, a first rate qual- 
ity of slush is used on all bright parts and all machined 
parts so as to prevent rusting. Small and delicate parts 
should be oiled and wrapped in oiled paper. 

"So far as lumber is concerned we use spruce in 
practically all cases whenever it can be procured. We 
formerly used 1%" in our heavier cases, but found that 
by reenforcing cases inside very strongly we could use 
lighter lumber and are now employing \y± matched 
spruce, saving additional expense and some extra freight 
charges. For the flooring of the bases of the heavier 
machines we use 1%" spruce. 

"We make skids for our smaller machines of 3"x6" 
timbers, using on the larger machines 4"x6" and 4"x8' 



>// u 



CHAPTER XIV 
PACKING OF AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY 

IDENTICALLY the same advice and instructions 
which have been offered in other chapters in this 
volume relating to the export packing of machinery, 
and in Captain Knowlton's and Mr. Fitz Gerald's special 
chapters, apply with full and equal force to the packing 
of all forms of agricultural machinery, and should be 
studied with care and attention by every exporter of the 
latter class of machinery. There may be little of a special 
nature to repeat in this chapter as applying specifically 
to shipments of agricultural machinery, yet it is believed 
that the reports and explanations which have courteously 
been supplied to the author by a large number of prom- 
inent manufacturers and exporters cannot fail to be of 
interest and value. 

. In the packing of agricultural implements great care 
must be taken to see that the lumber used is thoroughly 
cured, and green lumber should never be used. Strength 
and durability are two extremely important points in this 
sort of packing, and green lumber will be found to offer 
little or no security and will almost invariably lead to 
loss and trouble. As a general rule cases containing this 
class of goods are stored in the hold of the ship for trans- 
portation, the heat from the boilers and furnaces quickly 
dries out green lumber, and the speedy result is that 
nails are loosened or drawn out entirely, and the box 
or case either falls to pieces or is rendered practically 
useless. It frequently happens, when green lumber is 
used, that if the attempt is made to hoist the package 
from the hold it falls to pieces, and the only thing left 
of the machine can be easily shoveled from the bowels 
of the ship. 

369 



370 EXPORT PACKING 

Every effort should also be made to pack the imple- 
ments as compactly as possible so as to occupy the small- 
est amount of space, and for this purpose the machine 
should be knocked down just as far as the character of 
construction admits. However, when the machines are so 
knocked down instruction sheets for assembling must be 
most carefully worked out and enclosed with the package. 
The rural classes of foreign countries know, as a rule, 
little about mechanics, and if the purchaser is going to be 
protected to the extent of saving as much freight as pos- 
sible, he should also be protected to the extent of enabling 
him to assemble the machine without loss of time and 
without being compelled to call in an expert mechanic 
from, perhaps, some distant point. 

A manufacturing company widely known throughout 
the world, in sending a number of photographs illustrat- 
ing its packing methods, calls attention to an article 
which recently appeared in Tractor and Trailer under the 
title of "Boxing Agricultural Machinery for Export." 
This article was written by Monnett B. Davis of the J. I. 
Case Plow Works Company. From it the following ex- 
tracts may be quoted: "A great deal has been written 
concerning the proper packing of export shipments ; and, 
judging from the reports of various trade representa- 
tives abroad, even more might be read by manufacturers 
with profit to themselves and to our foreign trade in gen- 
eral. Most writers make very sharp criticisms on meth- 
ods now used, but very few suggest better methods to be 
substituted. 

"It is our purpose to set forth in a short article a 
brief description of how one company packs goods to the 
satisfaction of their foreign customers. There is nothing 
new or unusual in their methods ; we merely are attempt- 
ing to offer a few practical suggestions for exporters who 
are having trouble in packing goods. 

"Manufacturers in many cases do not appreciate the 
importance of careful packing for export. They use all 
care and expend real money in getting in touch with their 
foreign prospect and in securing the order. The steps 




Courtesy of Mesta Machine Co. 

Packing of Extra Heavy Machinery. 

It is the practice to place boards over finished bored holes and bearings and 
to wrap with burlap and protect with narrow strips of wood the smooth 
finished surfaces. 




OB 5 



Courtesy of Worthington Pump and Machinery Corp. 

Packing Naked Goods. 

Shows how condensers are prepared for export shipment when support saddles 
or feet are not cast integral with shell. This clearly indicates the method 
used and the reason for preparing material of this character in this manner. 

371 




372 



PACKING AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY 373 

thus far they deem of prime importance, as indeed they 
are. 

" After being advised that payment will be received 
for shipment at seaport this same manufacturer loses a 
great deal of his interest in the deal : for him the impor- 
tant part of the show is over. While the manufacturer's 
main interest is in getting his money, he must not lose 
sight of the fact that his customer has paid that money 
and that his main interest is in receiving the goods in 
good condition, so as to realize profit from them. If an 
exporter wishes to hold his customers it is very important 
that he take extreme care with each step in the transac- 
tion. 

"Pack for Safe Arrival.— In packing goods for export 
the point of prime importance is to have same reach the 
warehouse of the foreign customer in good condition. 
Absolute security might be obtained by very expensive 
and very heavy packing ; but there is another point to be 
watched, and that is expense involved which is borne by 
the customer. 

" While our foreign buyers are willing and anxious to 
pay what is necessary to insure the arrival of goods in 
good condition, they at the same time appreciate every 
step which diminishes packing and freight costs without 
materially reducing security of shipment. Thus the ob- 
ject should be to pack goods in the smallest space and at 
the least expense compatible with making certain that 
same will arrive in foreign port in condition to be of 
value to the importer. 

"In many cases an exporter feels that his customer is 
protected by insurance. This feeling is really unwar- 
ranted, as in the first place the customer has bought the 
goods to start doing business in a certain line; in case 
these goods are damaged he cannot do that even though 
he realizes no loss. This discourages him in practically 
every case and generally results in no further orders. In 
many cases where there is damage a great deal of in- 
convenience results to the importer in establishing his 
claim; and in many cases he must stand losses himself. 



374 EXPORT PACKING 

" 'Making Sure' Builds Business. — The greatest ob- 
stacle to be overcome is inertia and carelessness. The 
best scheme carelessly carried out will bring only indiffer- 
ent results. The most important thing is the individual 
who has charge of packing goods for export. This man 
must be systematic, careful, and above all, conscientious. 
In case he is inclined to 'let things go' he will lose many 
valuable customers for his concern. It is a fatal error 
to allow any machine to go out with any important part 
missing. It would be ten times better not to make the 
shipment at all. 

"A very good system must be inaugurated and car- 
ried out by a careful, painstaking, conscientious man to 
see that every machine goes out complete. The man 
needed is one who will, in case of doubt, entirely unpack 
a machine 'to make sure.' 

''We know of cases where the most serious disappoint- 
ments to foreign customers have resulted from a very 
small but important part being left out on an expensive 
machine. This was done simply through inexcusable 
carelessness in the packing department. When such mis- 
takes occur in domestic shipments they do not result in 
serious loss due to the fact that the dealer or jobber in 
question simply wires the factory and receives the part in 
a few days. In Bombay or Calcutta it would mean a 
season's work lost at least: imagine the effect upon the 
customer ! 

"One Successful Plan. — Machinery, especially, must 
be completely disassembled so as to pack in the smallest 
number of cubic feet and to prevent bending, springing 
or breaking of parts. To make the description very con- 
crete, a particular implement is taken and carried 
through the process, mentioning the smallest details. A 
three bottom engine gang plow is taken as an example. 
This plow weighs 960 pounds net and 1,090 pounds gross. 
Thus it will be noted that the weight of the packing is 
only 130 pounds. The cubic measurements of the crated 
plow is 16!/2 cubic feet, which means 66 pounds per cubic 
foot. The dimensions of the box are such that it is just 




375 



V 




e 

o 

to 



to 

8 



£ S 



£ s 



St 



a 

o 

to 



376 



PACKING AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY 377 

long enough to admit the beams, just wide enough to hold 
the wheels, and just high enough to admit the remainder 
of the parts without any lost space (see illustration, 
page 372). The plow must be packed in just a certain way 
or it will not fit in the case. A further advantage is gained 
in that the beams and wheels furnish very strong in- 
terior bracing. 

' l The boxes are made of carefully selected 1-inch gum 
wood which has given very good service throughout, and 
all nails are cement-coated. A number of additional pre- 
cautions are taken to insure goods arriving in good con- 
dition and their being assembled easily. In the first place 
mold-boards, bolt threads and other exposed metal parts 
are coated with an anti-rust compound similar to that 
used by the United States Ordnance Department on arms, 
to thoroughly protect them from rust. Another precau- 
tion taken is to leave bolt in hole where it belongs with 
nut screwed down sufficiently to prevent its losing out. 

"Many companies pack all bolts and nuts in a box to- 
gether ; but it has been found a very great help to men 
abroad, especially if they are inexperienced, to have the 
bolt left where it belongs, thus greatly facilitating setting 
up. In illustration page 375 we show box which holds the 
plow in question and the disassembled plow spread out 
before the box. In packing these parts straw or excelsior 
is used to make the packing tight and to prevent the parts 
from being damaged by too much jostling about. The 
completed case is shown also. After the lid has been 
nailed on the whole is reenforced by three metal straps. 
These are not the flimsy tin which is often used on pack- 
ing cases and is seen even on very large boxes, but is a 
very heavy gauge band iron % inch wide. It is there for 
real service and not for looks. As above stated, plows 
and other implements packed as described above arrive at 
their destinations in very excellent condition.' ' 

Instruction Sheets.— At least one consideration in 
connection with exporting of agricultural machinery 
deserves emphasis— that is the necessity of including in 
every shipment and in every case very simple and ele- 



378 EXPORT PACKING 

mentary instruction sheets in the language of the farmers 
of the country to which the shipment is destined, in order 
that there may be no difficulties and no delays in erecting 
the machines by inexperienced agricultural labor, which 
is not often experienced in engineering or even mechan- 
ical work. Such instruction sheets should not only con- 
sist of lists of the various parts contained in each case, 
but should describe them, referring to them by numbers 
which should be conspicuously stamped in or painted on 
the respective parts. Machines which are dismounted 
should always be accompanied by drawings and photo- 
graphs showing exactly how the parts are to go together, 
and what the whole looks like when completed. Various 
ways of identifying different parts may be adopted, be- 
sides the custom sometimes adopted of stenciling vari- 
colored lines, circles or other devices across adjoining 
parts in such a fashion that half of the mark will appear 
on each part when disassembled. 

Such advice applies no matter if shipments are in- 
tended for dealers, merchants, or distributors in a given 
market, because frequently cases containing machines in 
knocked down shape are forwarded by such distributors 
directly to their farmer customers, who may want to set 
up and assemble the machines immediately, without wait- 
ing for the possibly delayed arrival of the distributor's 
own engineers and mechanics. In any event, the more 
simple and intelligible the instructions given with the 
list of contents for each case shipped, the better the re- 
sulting satisfaction is bound to be. 

Packing of [Mowing and Harvesting Machines. — One 
of the largest manufacturers and exporters of harvesting 
machinery in the world writes the following interesting 
letter regarding its packing: 

"Harvesting machines can be packed in relatively 
small packages, for convenience of handling. They are 
also constructed to facilitate compactness in packing. 
Our present packing is the result of long experience 
and the design in some measure conforms to require- 
ments of packing. Tractors and heavy engines, on the 



PACKING AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY 379 

other hand, cannot be ' knocked down' or disassembled to 
anything like the extent of harvesting machines, and they 
also have more delicately finished parts. For this reason 
they require different treatment in packing. 

" Harvesting machines are ' knocked down' or taken 
apart to an extent which will facilitate packing compactly 
and also to make a package of convenient size for hand- 
ling on a hand truck. We aim to not exceed 1,000 pounds, 
or less than 200 pounds. There is no object in disassem- 
bling to an extent which would increase the weight of 
any package over 56 pounds per cubic foot. 

"We use cement-coated wire nails. This coating is 
important, to make the nails hold. Polished wire nails 
pull out very easily. There should be not less than two 
in the end of any board and not over 4 inches apart in 
wide boards. This may include the nail through band 
iron or corner iron. 

"We use lumber surfaced one side. This gives a de- 
sirable uniformity of thickness and of cubic measurement 
and makes easy stenciling on more than one face of the 
package. The lumber is usually %" or 1" rough, surfaced 
to 13/16" or 15/16" respectively. There must be no brash 
or cross-grain pieces. We use corner posts in packages — 
usually 2" x 2", or l 1 /^" x 1%" f° r small packages. 

"We use both closed boxes and open crates. We pre- 
fer crates when contents of packages are such that they 
can be used. 

"Except for light packages, we use band iron. We 
use %" 23 U. S. gauge. The amount used depends on the 
size, shape, weight and construction of the package. Band 
iron should have one nail to each board and nails not 
farther than 6" apart. It is desirable to chamfer the 
corner of the package at the edge where the band iron 
goes over. On crates we frequently use corner irons or 
corner clips. These should extend over each side about 
3" or 4" — for heavy packages, farther. 

"All harvesting machines must be braced or blocked 
firmly to the main part of the machine in the package. 
This does not refer to boxes of small pieces or fixtures. 



380 EXPORT PACKING 

These braces should run from side to side when oppor- 
tunity offers. Braces or blocks must not attach to parts 
which will not stand test set out below. Crates and boxes 
of narrow boards must usually be braced against diagonal 
strain. 

"Long, narrow side pieces (about V x 6' or longer) 
must be made of l 1 /^" dressed to 1 3/16", or a thinner 
lumber reenforced by strips running lengthwise. All 
wide side pieces of flat packages should be prevented 
from splitting by cross pieces. 

"For determining the appropriateness of any new 
packing, we test by forcibly pushing each over the end 
twice; that is to say, twice over and twice back, then 
over the side twice and twice back on a wooden floor. 
This must not damage the package or contents. The 
package is then dropped from a wagon-loading platform 
3 or 4 feet high to a pavement or hard ground, but not 
a cement pavement. In this latter test the package must 
not be broken to an extent to let out small parts or to 
break parts, but the package itself may be some strained 
or out of shape. 

"The projecting portions of heavy castings having 
narrow neck must be taken off, as they will break off 
by jarring. Grey iron extended parts must be kept 
%" to 1" away from the covering, or the give of the 
boards will cause breakage. Heavy cast pieces should 
not rest together but must be cushioned or separated by 
wood brace or block. 

"Angle iron sills, or projections, or malleable iron 
projections or shafts, can sometimes come through the 
covering but not beyond it. This is in order to better 
condense the package or to support the other parts. 

"Bright parts are protected by greasing with heavy 
black oil to avoid rusting in salt water transportation. 
Cotton duck parts are wrapped in tar paper to prevent 
mildew. 

' ' Tongued and grooved boards are rarely used by us, 
but in some large packages are used for top and bottom 
boards. Some increased strength can be secured thereby 




Courtesy of Avery Co. 

Packing of Threshing Machine. 

Bottom of crate and five cross bars are made of 2" x 8" oak plank doubled. 
Frame and bracing are made of 2" x V' yellow pine of good stock. 




Courtesy of Avery Co. 

Completed Case for Threshing Machine. 

Casing lumber is 1" x 8" yellow pine. Corner irons are made of 2" x 2" 26" 
gauge iron. Strap iron is 2" wide and 26" gauge. Gross weight of case is 
7560 lbs.; net weight 5796 lbs. Case measures 46" x 92" x 229". 

381 





Courtesy of Litscher Lite Corp. 

Packing a Farm Electric Light Plant. 

At left lighting plant complete on standard skids before packing; at right 
machine protected by a dust cover of heavy shipping paper. 



?■"""■■:'; 





Courtesy of Litscher Lite Corp. 

Complete Packages tor Farm Lighting Plant. 

The box shown at left is made of heavy tongued and grooved lumber and is 
iron strapped. Note ends of bolts which prevent shifting inside of bow. At right 
is shown four boxes containing plant when disassembled for foreign shipment 
involving muleback transportation. Effort is made to keep these packages below 
Id lbs. each in weight. 



382 



PACKING AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY 383 

when it is not convenient to cross-brace underneath: 

"In packing machines which are taken apart consid- 
erably it is desirable to indicate on the package box l Open 
on this side/ 

"Carrying wheels can often be shipped best without 
boxing or crating. Same applies to tongues or poles. 
The latter are often banded together in small multiples 
and thereby reduce the cubic measurement of each." 

A large export manufacturer writes as follows in 
regard to export packing: "Our machines have been 
packed for and shipped into every agricultural section 
of the world. This, of course, has required special pack- 
ing for different countries in order to meet both transpor- 
tation conditions, such as muleback packing for Bolivia, 
or special tariff conditions in force in various countries. 
While we endeavor to standardize our packing as much 
as possible, such standardization is based upon transpor- 
tation and import conditions of the country to which ship- 
ment is destined. , 

"As an indication of the test to which our packing is 
subjected, we test our packages by carrying them several 
flights by elevator and dropping them through the ele- 
vator shaft to the concrete floor below. The packages are 
then reopened and a careful investigation made to in- 
dicate just what breakage or shifting, if any, has taken 
place. 

"To some countries we supply machines in a semi- 
assembled condition; in other countries very completely 
knocked down. In this latter event, as all parts are 
clearly numbered and boxes contain very detailed in- 
struction books, the consignee has no real difficulty in 
assembling machines properly. We are herewith send- 
ing you an illustration of our packing for export of a 
mowing machine " (see page 376). 

Packing of Threshing Machines.— A manufacturer of 
threshing machines sends us photographs, shown on 
page 381, and states: "Export packing is a very ex- 
pensive operation just now, owing to the heavy cost of 
lumber and labor. In a main way, our method is as f ol- 



384 EXPORT PACKING 

lows : We draw the entire machine with all its equipment 
npon a platform. We take off the axles and wheels, take 
out the shafting, take off the pulleys, remove the cylin- 
der. We pack the cylinder separately, also the shafting. 
The pulleys and all its parts we pack inside the thresher. 
We also place the axles and the four thresher wheels 
inside the package. 

"We use a 2" oak bottom, using three planks and 
filling in between with 1" boards; then we use 2" x 4" 
for the frame at the sides, some set edgeways, some flat- 
ways. We use a light grade of pine to cover the package, 
and it should be closed up pretty tight so that bolts and 
nuts will not shake out if they get loose. The main thing, 
of course, is to condense the package into as small a space 
as possible, and this can be done by putting as many of 
the loose parts and other accessories that are to go along 
with this shipment, such as belts and canvas covers, in- 
side the main package. If there is a self-feeder to go, 
we pack it in a separate case. 

"You will, therefore, see that the basis of the thing 
is to get a good solid frame which we get out of oak plank 
and the 2" x 4". The rest is not so material. We have 
some customers who want a special package and ask us 
to use 2" lumber, but when they find out the present cost, 
they generally change their mind. 

"To give you an idea of the size of the ordinary 
thresher, we may mention the dimensions of our 32 x 52 
machine. This machine with self -feed and wind stacker 
weighs, gross, 13,930 pounds, net 10,420 pounds, and 
occupies 1,226 cubic feet. The largest package in the 
shipment measures 72" x 97" x 271", 1,090 cubic feet, and 
weighs 11,180 pounds. 

"In starting to pack a new machine, we first dismantle 
the machine and get it as near the shape we want to pack 
it as possible, then taking its measurements, cut our lum- 
ber. If, after packing one machine, we find we can still 
further reduce the package, we do it. Our foreign pack- 
ing department has standing instructions to always be 
figuring on making packages smaller if possible." 



PACKING AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY 385 

Packing of Windmills. — The following extract is from 
an interesting letter of a large manufacturer of wind- 
mills: "Windmill towers consist of the following parts: 
anchor posts ; iron corner posts ; iron cross girts ; braces 
(wire rods); ladder for climbing tower; wooden plat- 
form. 

"If only one mill and tower are packed per order, the 
angle-iron corner posts of the tower are each made up 
of ten-foot lengths, the number depending upon the 
height of the tower. These lengths are placed with their 
angles fitting into one another, and the wire braces are 
packed inside, their ends being bent over, so that they 
will not exceed the height of the posts. All are tied to- 
gether at top and bottom with wire, and the address tag 
is tied on with wire. The bundles are also marked with 
white paint. The iron cross girts are tied similarly into 
a separate bundle, and another bundle is made of the four 
anchor posts, which are to be anchored in the ground. 
The ladder, also, knocked down into lengths whose num- 
ber depends upon the height of the tower, is bundled 
similarly. The bolts and washers are packed in a box. 
The wooden platform is crated separately. 

"Windmills : the vane sheet is packed in a crate. The 
fans and arms, which are knocked down into from four to 
eight sections, are packed in another crate, one section 
on top of another. The bolts and other fixtures go in 
one box ; the central ironwork in another box. 

"If several mills and towers are packed for same 
order, the towers, being compact in bulk, are rated on 
a weight basis; therefore they are packed in the same 
way as above, without any effort to reduce the measure- 
ment. The wooden platforms, however, are crated sev- 
eral in a box. 

"The mills are so packed as to include as nearly as 
possible one long ton of weight per 40 cubic feet of 
measurement, for the steamship company, having the 
option of basing rates on weight or on measurement, 
counts 40 cubic feet to a long ton. If the measurement 
per ton exceeds this, the company will naturally choose 



386 EXPORT PACKING 

to charge by measurement and therefore the shipper will 
have to pay for more than the actual weight. Therefore, 
shipments are made as follows, wherever possible: six 
6-foot mills; five 8-foot mills; three 10-foot mills; two 
12-foot mills. Space is saved by knocking down the fans 
entirely, so that one lies perfectly flat upon the other, 
and a very small crate can be used. 

Farm Electric Light Plants. — An experienced manu- 
facturer and shipper writes : ' ' Our product is a farm or 
rural lighting plant, consisting of a gasoline engine 
mounted upon the same base with an electric generator, 
switchboard and radiator. We are sending photographs 
we have had prepared for you, showing our method of 
packing these plants for export shipment. You should 
note that whereas we pack in open crates for domestic 
shipment, we invariably use tight boxes for exporting. 
All plants are mounted on skids — which form the base for 
both domestic and export shipment — and are built up on 
2" x 4" and 2" x 6" lumber. 

' 'We usually ship these plants in integral units, but 
sometimes have to disassemble them for countries of 
mountainous character, where the cases have to be trans- 
ported on muleback. We then make an effort to keep 
packages below 160 pounds each, as, for example, in ship- 
ments to Colombia, Photographs (see page 382) illus- 
trate the plant in a single case, and precisely the same 
plant dismounted and packed in four cases. These fou y - 
small cases have the following measurements and 
weights : . 



1 case —15" x 21 " x 23^" weight 166 pounds 

1 case —IS" x 21 " x 33" weight 147 pounds 

2 cases— each 11" x 17" x 30^" weight. eachl38 pounds 



We believe that you will agree with us that these pic- 
tures present evidence of good packing for export. 

"Our plants are bolted to the base with 3y 2 " bolts, to 
prevent shifting inside of the case, which is constructed 
of 1%" x 5" x 39" matched, close fit lumber, usually 




Courtesy of Henry Ford & Son. 

Packing of Agricultural Tractor. 
The first stage of packing, ivithout the wheels. 




Courtesy of Henry Ford d- Son. 
Method of Packing Tractor Wheels. 
The wheels and motor are packed together. Note that motor is covered with 



waterproof cloth. 



387 




Courtesy of Henry Ford & Son. 
Completed Case for Tractor. 
Note marks showing weights and linear and cubic measurements. 




— ii n 
Courtesy of Cleveland Tractor Co. 

Method of Boxing Tractor. 

Whole tractor is boxed as it stands, and consumer has very little assembling. 
Delicate parts, magnetos, etc., packed separately. Box is lined with waterproof 
paper, strongly reenforced, and all parts cleated down. Case is iron strapped. 
Attention is called to size of case and cubic contents indicated by marks, which 
are not export marks but have been made merely to illustrate packing methods. 

388 



PACKING AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY 389 

hemlock or pine, and securely strapped with heavy band 
iron. 

1 i We would call your attention to the smeared appear- 
ance, in the photograph, of the lettering in the marking. 
This is due to the reflection of the light on the gloss of 
the shellac with which all of our marks are covered, to 
make them permanent. Actually the lettering is per- 
fectly clear. 

"Like many American manufacturers, it took us some 
time to learn how properly to pack for export, and it was 
not until several of our shipments had been damaged that 
we learned that it paid to put extraordinary careful and 
strong work on all export packages. ' ' 

Packing Agricultural Tractors. — According to a re- 
cent issue of the Wall Street Journal, the production of 
agricultural-type tractors in the United States during the 
year 1920 is estimated at 300,000. This compares with 
175,000 produced in 1919 and 7,450 in 1913, the first year 
in which small agricultural-type tractors demonstrated 
their efficiency and worth to the farmer. Thus in the 
brief span of seven years we have an increase of some 
4,000 per cent. 

We believe that the increase in production of tractors 
will obey the same law as the increase in automobiles, 
and that the argument for the increase in the two cases 
has a very close analogy. During the infancy of the auto- 
mobile industry predictions were constantly made that 
the saturation point would soon be reached, and then we 
should have a decline in the number of cars turned out 
and a decided restriction in the maximum production. 
However, as time went on it was seen that the automo- 
bile was essentially a transportation element, and that 
the number in use could only be measured by the trans- 
portation needs of the different sections of the world. 
As these transportation needs, however, are constantly 
expanding, both from the standpoint of the individual 
and from that of commerce, it has been impossible to set 
bounds for them, and gradually the conviction has be- 
come fixed that it is not possible to set a limit either in 



390 EXPORT PACKING 

time or quantity for the number of cars that the world 
will require and purchase. 

The tractor offers the same problem, for it is equally 
impossible to predict the volume of the demand that will 
be created by the progress of agriculture and the in- 
creased enlightenment of the farming classes. As the 
production of automobiles will respond to the broadening 
of transportation needs, utilization of motor express 
lines, expansion of the good-roads movement, so the trac- 
tor will obey the laws of expansion in agriculture and the 
necessity confronting the farmer of relying more and 
more upon machinery for the planting, care and reaping 
of his crop. 

Tractors are made in many different sizes and in a 
large number of types, although it would seem that the 
greater demand will be for the small, less expensive 
machines, as the same has been true of the small, inex- 
pensive automobile. A house doing a large international 
business in small tractors sends three interesting photo- 
graphs, pages 387 and 388, which are self-explanatory. 

A house making a small machine sends a photograph 
(see page 388), and states: "We believe we cannot do bet- 
ter than enclose you herewith a photograph of the boxing 
as used by us, which has proven eminently suitable for 
overseas shipment. In this particular case the whole 
tractor is boxed as it is, and the consumer has very little 
assembling to do in order to have his machine ready for 
work. The delicate parts like magnetos, etc., are packed 
separately in waterproof and greased material, and the 
whole inside of the box is lined with waterproof paper, 
strongly reenf orced, and all parts are cleated down. We 
have had occasion to ship many hundreds of these 
tractors abroad, and the complaints about packing have 
been practically nil." 

This manufacturer states that the case shown is iron- 
strapped, and attention is called to the size of case and 
cubic contents, indicated by the marks. Of course these 
marks are not export marks, and are merely for the pur- 
pose of illustrating packing methods. 



PACKING AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY 391 

An internationally famous company, which has 
shipped thousands of tractors to many parts of the world, 
sends photographs (see pages 393, 394 and 397), and 
writes : "For engines or tractors or for heavy machinery 
which makes a package of over about a thousand pounds, 
which, therefore, is not suitable for handling on a ware- 
house truck, we pack on skids for moving on rollers. 
Tractors are shipped nearly set up, though the carrying 
wheels are removed. 

"For our 8/16 HP tractor we use two sills, 4" x 6", 
of hard maple for skids. Cross pieces are bolted thereto, 
the heads of the bolts being counter-sunk in the bottom 
of the sills. The cross pieces are covered with a maple 
floor. Yellow pine uprights measuring 2" x 6" are nailed 
with 40-penny nails to the ends of the cross pieces. Top 
stringers and top cross pieces are provided of the same 
material. All is covered by maple sheathing and rein- 
forced by band iron. Cross pieces are run from side 
to side where convenient. The engine must be firmly 
bolted to the skids or flooring; nothing is hung to the 
sides of the box. 

' ' All bright or finished parts are covered with water- 
proof paper, reenf orced with gauze ; 10-penny nails are 
used in sheathing; 8-penny nails in banding. Carrying 
wheels are shipped loose with boards attached for sten- 
ciling. ' ' 

A large manufacturer and shipper sends the fol- 
lowing brief description of his packing procedure : ' ' The 
implement or tractor, completely assembled, is forwarded 
to the boxing department. Here it is carefully inspected 
to make sure that everything is in order, and then dis- 
assembled. Instead of the bolts and other parts being 
packed loosely in the box, each bolt and nut is put back 
into its proper place. All exposed and polished surfaces 
are coated with a special anti-rust compound. The parts 
are next packed in excelsior, in specially designed boxes, 
which are made of carefully selected gum-wood planking 
of y%' thickness. Cement covered nails are used through- 
out. After the parts are carefully packed in excelsior 



392 EXPORT PACKING 

in these boxes, three complete sets of setting-up instruc- 
tions are then placed in the box, before the top cover is 
nailed on. These setting-up instructions are translated 
into French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, etc., and in- 
stead of going into a lengthy description as to how each 
part is assembled, it has been our policy to show excellent 
cuts of photographs. After the top cover has been nailed 
down, the box is then banded at intervals of 2%' with 
heavy gauge band iron, %" wide. This is tightened by a 
special tool made for that purpose. 

"The description of the boxing methods on our trac- 
tor is clearly explained in the attached article. We 
might add that this tractor crate is lined on the inside 
with several thicknesses of tar paper. We are now using 
double deck planking, as our experience has shown us that 
when single deck planking is used water will sometimes 
leak through the top and remain on top of the tar paper 
lining, until the rolling of the ship, or whatever convey- 
ance is being used, gradually works the water through the 
wrapping of the tar paper.' ' 

The following is an extract from the article referred 
to in the last paragraph, which, together with quotations 
appearing in the earlier portion of this chapter, was pub- 
lished in Tractor and Trailer: "In packing the tractors 
the same care is used about little things as in the line of 
implements. The main thing in packing big machinery, 
as in everything else, is the degree of care used. The 
most careful, conscientious and painstaking man in the 
shop should be put in charge of packing shipments for. 
export. 

' ' The illustration, page 397, showing a tractor in skele- 
ton crate, shows very clearly method of packing this 
machine. It is particularly necessary to have the trac- 
tor thoroughly braced in the crate so that however 
the crate may be stowed away the tractor and dismantled 
parts will keep their places. Care must also be taken 
that machine is packed so as to avoid a strain on any 
particular part. The crate is just wide enough to admit 
the front part of chassis with drive wheel on either side. 




Courtesy of International Harvester Co. 

Tractor Knocked Down with Parts Disassembled 
Eeady for Export Packing. 




Courtesy of International Harvester Co. 
Packing Disassembled Tractor. 
Shows base, or skids. The hood has been removed from the engine. 

393 




fcfc. ' ' • ■ - arifc 

Courtesy of International Harvester Co. 

Framework of Sides and Top of Case for Tractor. 

Tractor is attached to base. Note method of placing boxes containing small 
parts. 




Courtesy of International Harvester Co. 
Method of Packing Parts of Tractor. 
Carrying wheels and other parts have been inserted and attached to base. 

394 



PACKING AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY 395 

The length of course is the extreme length of the tractor 
with wheels removed, and height the diameter of drive 
wheels. This tractor packs in 208 cubic feet, which re- 
sults in a very appreciable saving in freight to the im- 
porter. 

" Every precaution is taken to prevent the tractor be- 
ing injured by exposure to the weather and sea water. 
The tractor is first placed in skeleton crate and thor- 
oughly braced ; then covered with heavy grade tar paper 
and finally boxed, as shown in illustration, page 398." 

Another prominent manufacturer writes : ' ' The prob- 
lem of packing tractors for export shipment begins at 
the time the machines are knocked down in the factory, 
and ends only when they are reassembled at their foreign 
destination. The tractor must be sufficiently taken apart 
as to permit compact packing. At the same time no 
unnecessary part must be taken off. The tractor must 
be so packed and crated that it will arrive in good con- 
dition without breakage or loss." See photographs sup- 
plied by this house, pages 398, 401 and 402. 

"All machine parts must be so protected by the use 
of heavy slushing oil that there can be no corrosion of 
the metal by salt air. Precautions must also be taken 
against rain and impromptu duckings. 

"Arriving as it does at its destination in a knocked 
down condition, if follows that reassembling at the dock 
or warehouse is the first step to be taken, and in order 
that loss of parts or mistakes in erection cannot occur, 
a careful system of checking-in the removed parts and a 
carefully explained process of reerection must be sent 
along with the tractor. 

"Knocking Down. — The tractor is run in on the ship- 
ping floor; the hood and spark plugs are removed; the 
cylinder head pan is taken off and heavy slushing oil 
worked into the valve seats and cylinders, over the bear- 
ings and down the valve guides, and on every machined 
surface. On all other exposed places not covered by 
paint, a special slushing grease is smeared thickly. These 
precautions are taken as a protection against the damp 



396 EXPORT PACKING 

sea air and moisture. The fan belt, spark plugs, steer- 
ing wheel and levers are then removed and packed se- 
curely in boxes. The wheels are taken off and the naked 
frame with the motor is placed in the crate. The wheels 
are placed alongside as shown in the photograph (page 
401), and the boxes of parts stowed away. Around the 
engine is wrapped a double thickness of heavy tar paper, 
which is securely tied. 

"It is obvious that such a heavy piece of machinery 
requires an extra strong crate to protect it from the hard 
knocks of handling by cranes and winches. 

"A brief description of the crates in which Twin 
City ' 12-20' tractors are packed might not be amiss. The 
bed pieces of the frame are three heavy four by sixes, 
running lengthwise and tied by three half-inch tie rods. 
The flooring, which is two-inch planking, is nailed se- 
curely to these stringers. On top of this planking is 
placed a double thickness of tar paper. The uprights of 
the crate are then placed in position and securely bolted, 
and the top cross pieces put on ; tar paper is then tacked 
on the outside faces of the uprights and the case sheathed 
up over the tar paper with one-inch dressed and matched 
lumber, thus making the whole thing water-tight and al- 
most air-tight. 

"Markings. — The boxes containing removed parts are 
placed on the inside of the crate, are marked with a list 
of the materials they contain, while the outside of the 
crate is labeled with very great care. The number of the 
box, its cubic contents in cubic feet and cubic meters, 
its weight in pounds and kilograms, the gross tare and 
net in pounds and kilograms, its destination and the 
consignor, also the notation 'For export-lighterage free,' 
are placed conspicuously. ' ' 

The originators of the caterpillar type of tractor sup- 
ply the author with an elaborate book covering their 
packing procedure, and from the general instructions is- 
sued by this company the following quotations are made 
covering the most important sections of the same: 

"1. (a) When disassembling the tractor as many as 




Courtesy of International Harvester Co. 
Completed Case Containing Disassembled Tractor. 
Shows the complete package, including banding. 




■HHP JMHHHMHHr 

Courtesy of J. I. Case Plow Works Co. 

Tractor in Skeleton Crate. 

The tractor must be thoroughly braced so that however the crate may be 
stowed away, the tractor and dismantled parts unll keep their places. Care 
must be taken that machine is so packed to avoid undue strain on any one part. 

397 





Courtesy of J. I. Case Plow Works Co. 
Final Boxing of Tractor. 

After being placed in skeleton crate and thoroughly braced, the tractor is 
covered with heavy grade tar paper and boxed. The box is now ready for 
strapping. 




Courtesy of Minneapolis Steel and Machinery Co. 
Another Method of Packing Disassembled Tractor. 

A disassembled machine which has just been lifted into the partly built case 
by means of the overhead crane shown in the picture. For greater ease in load- 
ing, only one side of the case is built up. 

398 



PACKING AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY 399 

possible of the small parts of assemblies, also bolts, nuts, 
washers, etc., will be replaced on the assemblies from 
which removed, and when so placed must be securely 
tightened or fastened so they will not jar off. 

"(b) When it is impossible to replace such parts as 
outlined above, owing to interference in crating, they 
should be placed in cloth shipping sacks, or wrapped if 
too large to be put in sacks, tagged so as to be properly 
identified, and then be tied or fastened as near the loca- 
tion where they belong as possible. In cases where the 
twine or cord is likely to be cut or become broken, the 
tags should be wired to the assembly. 

" (c) If the above referred to parts are finished or 
machined, they must be slushed with slushing compound 
to prevent rust. 

"2. All finished or machined metal parts on all as- 
semblies will be thoroughly slushed with slushing com- 
pound (a composition of heavy oil and white lead) before 
packing to prevent rust or corrosion. This is of prime im- 
portance, as it must be borne in mind that portions of 
the hold of the ship are at best extremely damp and 
machinery for export traffic must be protected against 
rust and damage due to water and dampness. 

"3. Boxes containing all assemblies, which might be 
damaged by rust, will be lined with tar paper as an extra 
precaution against dampness. 

"4. As a means of assisting in reassembling, a dupli- 
cate set of numbered tags will be used. After the dis- 
assembly is made and part removed, such parts will be 
tagged with one of the duplicate numbered tags; the 
corresponding duplicate numbered tag will be attached 
to the place where the part was removed from. Tags will 
be fitted with wire fastenings and not twine fastenings. 

"5. Before starting the disassembly of the tractor, 
the carburetor, gasoline tanks, radiator and cooling sys- 
tem must be entirely drained and the long red tag marked 
< CAUTION ' attached to the motor. 

"6. Inspection plates on the motor will be removed 
and the connecting rods, crankshaft, and other interior 



400 EXPORT PACKING 

parts will be given a coating of slushing compound, also 
a pint of heavy cylinder oil will be placed in each cylinder 
through the spark plug holes. The small red tag marked 
1 IMPORT ANT' will be attached to the motor, saying this 
has been done. 

"7. All air openings into the motor or transmission 
must be filled with wooden plugs or be stuffed with burlap 
and wrapped with ' Kraft ' paper, so as to prevent any 
dampness reaching the interior parts. 

"8. Specifications of 'Kraft' paper: Paper should 
be 100 per cent sulphate l Kraft ' paper, weighing approxi- 
mately 60 pounds to the ream of 480 sheets, 24" x 36", 
coated with asphalt and reenforced with cotton cloth of 
approximately 16 thread to the inch in each direction. 
This paper should weigh approximately 34 pounds to the 
100 square yards. Such paper will be entirely waterproof 
and have strength of not less than 60 pounds, tested on 
Mullen tester. 

"9. Marking packages : Each package will be plainly 
marked with stencil or brush, unless specific directions 
are given to the contrary on the shipping order. Never 
use shipping tags, as they are easily torn off in handling. 

"10. Numbering packages: Whenever a shipment 
embraces more than one package, each package in the 
shipment must be numbered consecutively. This point is 
important, as numbers must be shown on all documents 
and bill of ladings relating to the shipment, such being 
one of the principal means of identification used by the 
steamship company when loading and discharging cargo. 

"11. Reenforcing with strap iron: (a) Each box 
when nailed will be, if built on skids, strapped from bot- 
tom, up sides and across the top, and also from bottom, 
up the ends and over the top, with strap iron nailed to the 
box; strap iron to be placed at least 1" from the end is 
preferred. 

" (b) If box is not built on skids, the strapping must 
extend entirely around the box, both lengthwise and 
around the ends. 

"12. After the assemblies have been placed in the 




Courtesy of Minneapolis Steel and Machinery Co. 
Second Stage of Packing Disassembled Tractor. 

The same machine after the parts have been slushed with oil and the engine 
has been wrapped with double thickness of tar paper, firmly tied with rope. 




Courtesy of Minneapolis Steel and Machinery Co. 
Method of Packing Tractor Wheels. 

The wheels are packed in beside the tractor. In the back are the two largo 
hind wheels, and in foreground is one front wheel, the second front wheel lying 
beneath the other. The small wheel is a belt pulley. 

401 




Courtesy of Minneapolis Steel and Machinery Co. 

Tractor Case Beady for Sheathing. 

All parts have been packed in around tractors and other side of case has been 
built up. Note box containing tools and spare parts in foreground. 




Courtesy of Troy Wagon Works Co. 

Trailer Boxed for Export. 

The trailer is shipped knocked down. Boxes bound with 1" No. 22 strap iron, 
nailed on. Corners are reinforced with No. lh sheet steel. 

402 



PACKING AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY 403 

crates, all places which should be painted (but were not 
covered at the time the spraying was done) will be 
painted with a brush; also all parts of the assembly 
marred in making the disassembly will be re-painted with 
the brush. 

"13. Tools and spare parts : Tools will be packed in 
a box made of 1" material, 20y 2 " long, 16%" wide and 14 
%" high; and spare parts will be packed in two (2) boxes 
made of 1" material, one of which is the same size as 
the tool box and the other size 41" long, 10" wide and 9" 
high. ' ' 

Hand Plows. — A large exporter of hand plows gives 
us the following information regarding packing for ex- 
port shipment : 

"In packing plows for export shipment we always 
knock them down completely or disassemble all parts. 
The plow bottoms proper, which consist of the standard, 
mouldboard, share and landside r are usually packed in 
one case, placing about six of these bottoms in one box. 
Prairie hay is packed between the parts so as to prevent 
breakage. We have found this to be the best material 
that we can get hold of for this purpose, as it will not 
move or shift around in the box like shavings or some 
other materials that are sometimes used. The hay is 
very tough and even when the cases are occasionally sub- 
jected to rain or weather conditions, this hay remains 
just the same as when placed in the cases. 

"If the plows are fitted with steel beams, we usually 
pack the beams for six or twelve plows in a case and 
the wood handles in another case, so that the iron parts 
will have no chance of scratching the paint on the wood 
parts. 

"If the plows are fitted with wood beams, the usual 
custom is to pack the handles and beams in one case. 
When there are nothing but wood parts in a case no hay, 
of course, is required as everything is packed tightly and 
if necessary, cleats are nailed in the cases so as to keep 
everything in perfect position. 

"The cases themselves are made from good quality 



404 EXPORT PACKING 

pine crating or boxing lumber of one inch in thickness. 
Occasionally it is necessary to use some hard wood lum- 
ber where a little more weight than usual is to be placed 
in the cases. You will note that they are cleated at the 
corners on each end, giving strength and also providing 
better facilities for fastening on the lid. All cases, which 
are ^ve foot or more in length, especially if considerable 
weight is placed in them, are also provided with cleats 
in the middle on the inside of the cases, on both sides 
and the bottom. 

"All cases are bound with heavy strap iron and ex- 
tremely well nailed. The small cases are bound on each 
end with strap iron, while the longer ones are also bound 
in the middle and if exceptionally long we place two 
bands of strap iron in the middle, making four alto- 
gether. 

"The average weight of our cases is around 400 
pounds gross and they very seldom weigh more than 650 
to 700 pounds. For the West Coast of South America 
the cases, of course, are somewhat smaller and we always 
follow closely the wishes of our customers when they 
want the weight held down to the minimum on account 
of having to carry the cases over the mountains on mule- 
back. 

"We have in charge of our export packing depart- 
ment an old and experienced employee, who takes a spe- 
cial interest in the business and a special pleasure in 
seeing to it that all goods reach destination in the same 
condition they leave the factory." 

Another large shipper writes us: 

"We use double end cases built of North Carolina or 
Georgia pine, and banded with hoop iron. In packing 
the boxes we are careful to see that there are no bulges 
in the middle, as these will bring the weight of the cargo 
unnecessarily upon the contents of the box, and result in 
breakage without any apparent cause. Normally, we 
pack 3 plows in a box, but the small plows go 6 in a box, 
and the heavy contractor's plows 2 in a box. 

"The plows are set up complete with the exception 



PACKING AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY 405 

of the handles, and are then knocked down, all of the 
parts of the plow being together so that every plow can 
be assembled with the same parts. While it is true that 
plow parts are interchangeable, it is not possible to as- 
semble and polish them, and after tearing them down, 
to build them from parts at random, and have them look 
as well as the original plow. The iron and steel parts 
are packed in excelsior, and the wood parts are protected 
from damage through contact with the iron parts by a 
thin strip of wood. The handles are included, so that 
each box contains all the parts to complete the plows. 

"We endeavor to keep the boxes to within the limit 
of about 450 pounds, as our experience shows that heav- 
ier boxes show a great increase of breakage." 

In connection with this information the- photographs 
reproduced together on page 409 will be found of interest. 
Cut No. 1 shows a box of plow parts before being nailed 
up. The use of prairie hay for packing between cast 
parts or between steel and wood parts to prevent scratch- 
ing of painted surfaces will be noted. Before the box is 
finally nailed up additional hay is put on top and the case 
is filled as full as possible. Cut No. 2 shows a carload of 
goods all boxed, packed, stenciled and marked and ready 
for loading. 



CHAPTER XV 

THE PACKING OF HARDWARE, TOOLS, AUTO- 
MOBILE ACCESSORIES, SMALL APPARATUS 

IT is very probable that one of the very important 
reasons for the success that has attended American 
export trade in hardware and tools has been due to 
the character of the packing and the care with which the 
firms most prominent in the work have distinguished 
their export effort. The neat, carefully wrapped and 
cartoned American tool or fine hardware is a delight to 
the foreign merchant and is constantly winning us good 
grace and favor. 

The character of the American export package is in 
direct contrast to the European method, and this is fairly 
surprising in view of the care with which the European 
export package is usually looked after. The fact is, how- 
ever, that the continental manufacturers usually ship 
tools either loose or uninvitingly wrapped in brown 
paper, and the merchandise hardly graces the merchants ' 
shelves when once it has been unpacked and piled up as 
best the situation permits. 

It is not alone the neat carton that commends the 
American package of tools or hardware, it is also the well 
considered export case in which the goods are placed. 
The best practice of the United States has developed an 
excellent export case for this class of goods, and the man 
abroad who takes his exercise along the docks from time 
to time is more than once pleased to note many excellent 
cases with the name of some well known American man- 
ufacturer of tools or hardware stamped thereon. 

Character of Complaints. — However, no American 
manufacturer of hardware or tools and similar goods 
should delude himself into the belief that his packing is 

406 



THE PACKING OF SMALL APPARATUS 407 

necessarily perfect. Not a few complaints are constantly 
being received from foreign customers of American man- 
ufacturers as to the unsatisfactory condition in which 
various commodities are received. For example, a letter 
from a large New York export merchant specializing in 
the shipping of hardware and tools reports several com- 
plaints recently received. One from Australia referred 
to the light, frail cases which many American manufac- 
turers use and the soft woods employed for making 
the cases which are not at all suited for the long sea 
journey. Another complaint received by this merchant 
from customers in India refers to the same characteristic 
of some American packing, that is, cases too light and 
iron banding both too narrow and too light weight. Fur- 
thermore, the Indian customers of the New York exporter 
declare that there is a very large breakage of iron cast- 
ings due to the totally insufficient use of excelsior or other 
stuffing material. 

Other complaints of the way in which some American 
hardware is shipped are voiced in a letter on this sub- 
ject from another export merchant, who declares that his 
foreign customers very frequently complain of the poor 
quality of the cardboard boxes which are used for con- 
taining shelf hardware, padlocks, etc., which frequently 
arrive torn or crushed. This is attributed both to the 
fact that the cardboard used is too light in weight and to 
the fact that the cartons are not quite filled, leaving 
empty spaces which make crushing almost inevitable, be- 
sides permitting the contents to rattle about. If cartons 
are not quite full they should be firmly wadded with tis- 
sue or waste paper. Of course, damage to a cardboard 
box which is intended for shelf display purposes is quite 
a serious handicap to the free development of further and 
larger business. Naturally all such cartons of hardware 
ought to be very firmly packed inside of the wooden cases. 

Complaint it seems is also sometimes received as to 
inadequate waterproofing protection of cases of hard- 
ware. To this is attributed the spots of rust which are 
frequently found and interfere seriously with the sal- 



408 EXPORT PACKING 

ability of the goods. Furthermore, one export merchant 
protests against the use of thoroughly inadequate cases 
in the packing of very expensive lines of hardware, and 
rightly believes that the more valuable the contents the 
greater the care which ought to be devoted to their pro- 
tection. 

Examples of Actual Practice. — It is worthy of note 
that by no means a small percentage of hardware ex- 
ports is dispatched in kegs and barrels instead of in 
cases. This form of package is probably preferred in 
most instances because a keg or barrel is considerably 
cheaper than a suitable export packing case. Shipments 
in this form of container will be found discussed in a 
special chapter dealing with barrelled goods. In this 
connection one of the largest manufacturers of cast-iron 
cistern pumps in the United States declares that while 
his shipments are customarily exported in barrels, for 
which a charge is made only about one-half of what would 
be necessary if packing cases were used, yet he has one 
customer in Europe to whom these common cast-iron 
pumps are shipped entirely naked. In this particular 
case, the explanation is that the merchandise is trans- 
ported by a direct steamship line plying between New 
York and the city where the customer is located, and the 
line in question is one of the oldest and most careful 
steamship companies in the world paying special atten- 
tion to the handling of cargo of all sorts. The customer 
in this instance believes that he suffers less loss from 
breakage when the pumps are shipped naked than the 
cost even of barrels amounts to. Of course, instances like 
this are not to be considered as precedents. All goods, 
hardware and everything else, must always in the absence 
of special agreements with customers be shipped with 
the fullest and most adequate protection possible. From 
the experience in letters received from a great many dif- 
ferent manufacturers of various kinds of hardware, a few 
extracts may be made as illustrating the practice and pol- 
icy of large shippers who have been exporting their goods 
for a great many years. 




Courtesy of South Bend Chilled Plow Co. 

Boxing Plow Parts. 

Shows the box before being nailed up. Prairie hay is packed around plow 
handles, beams, etc., to prevent scratching of paint. It is likewise used for 
packing between cast parts. The case is filled full of hay before nailing. 




Courtesy of South Bend Chilled Plow Co. 
A Carload of Goods Keady for Shipment. 

409 







Courtesy of Qoodell-Pratt Co. 

Packing of Small Tools. 

These cases are lined with specially prepared waterproof paper. Tools are 
packed in strong paper covered cartons. 



'. ,.. . » 





441^ 



Courtesy of Ooodell-Pratt Co. 

Case of Small Tools. 

Banding for this rase is of moderately hear)/ grade strap with turned edges. 
Shipping marks and case numbers are stenciled in 2" letters. 

410 



TEE PACKING OF SMALL APPARATUS 411 

One prominent manufacturer writes: "As we man- 
ufacture over 2,000 different tools, no two of which are 
of the same size and shape, it is necessary for^is to carry 
in stock a large assortment of packing cases of various 
sizes in order to avoid the all too common error of ship- 
ping in cases involving an excessive amount of waste 
space. Summing up our experience of nearly thirty years 
in export shipping, we believe it is necessary for ex- 
porters to study continually both qualities and styles of 
cases, method of packing, case lining, style of band iron 
used and method of applying, as well as the stenciling 
and handling of the packages. 

"We use in every instance new cases of pine in order 
to save weight and get maximum strength. Our largest 
cases measure 37'%" x 26" x 12%" and all our cases of 
the larger sizes are made from %" stock in what is known 
by box manufacturers as Style No. 3 (with mitered 
cleated ends). Our smaller cases (see cuts page 410) 
are made in the regular manner, but when they are used 
for shipping hack saw blades the box ends are made of 
plump 2" lumber and the sides, top and bottom run from 
7 / 8 " to 1". (This case, as shown in the photograph, 
measures approximately 29 1 /2 ,/ x 12%" x 5%" and is a 
very durable and satisfactory package.) 

"Then we line all of our export cases with a specially 
prepared paper which is waterproof and keeps out both 
water and moisture, does not tear too easily and above all 
does not stain or soil pasteboard cartons with oil or smut. 

"Whenever waste space is unavoidable in a case it is 
carefully filled with crumpled bogus paper. We never 
use excelsior, hay or straw, as any of the three will break 
up into small particles and get into the pasteboard car- 
tons with the tools, thereby making all the cartons untidy 
when they a're opened for^the inspection of purchasers. 
Bogus paper is a very cheap grade of paper which will 
crumple up easily and make a soft but weight repelling 
packing. 

"All items which we manufacture except small ones, 
such as nail sets, gimlet bits, screwdrivers, etc., are 



412 EXPORT PACKING 

packed one each in a strong paper covered carton. Be- 
fore packing each tool is wrapped in waxed or anti-rnst 
paper. The smaller items, nail sets, etc., are packed in 
similar fashion except that they are put up in lots of half 
dozen or one dozen to a pasteboard carton. 

"Unless the cartons stand up a very little above the 
sides of the case, it is customary with us to place one, two 
or three thicknesses of corrugated paper over the entire 
contents in order to keep all the cartons in place and 
avoid the possibility of shifting, then the cover is nailed 
down with cement coated nails used in sufficient quantities 
to draw the cover tight all around the case. 

"For banding cases we use a moderately heavy grade 
of iron with turned edges and apply with a small hand 
machine which stretches bands tight before nailing. 
- "Stenciling shipping marks and case numbers is 
done with 2" letters, the forwarding agent's name and 
address with a smaller stencil, as will be noted in the 
photograph supplied. In our experience we have found 
that this is one of the most important points quite often 
overlooked when cases are stenciled for export shipment. 
Great care should be taken (a) to see that stencils of the 
proper size are used, (b) to place the markings in good 
position on the case, (c) to use a good grade of water 
repelling stenciling ink. ' ' 

Other photographs supplied by another prominent 
manufacturer (see page 415) are self-explanatory. This 
manufacturer again advises the use of good quality 
white pine lumber in making cases, believing it light and 
very durable. He also urges the use of waterproof ink 
in marking cases ; one that will not wash off or smudge. 

Packing Saws.— Advices have been received from two 
different manufacturers of saws in regard to the methods 
employed by them in export packing. One manufacturer 
writes that "we use matched lumber %" thick, line with 
waterproof paper, and bind with iron strapping %" wide 
drawn very tight. The goods are firmly blocked inside 
the box by means of cleats, etc., and articles liable to 
breakage are carefully packed in excelsior. The out- 



TEE PACKING OF SMALL APPARATUS 413 

side ends of our cases are reenforced by cleats of %" 
lumber, as illustrated in the attached sketches. " 

A second manufacturer of saws uses heavier material 
as will be observed from the letter which follows: "On 
the larger saws for mills we go over each saw with a 
solution to guard against rust and the saws are packed 
in cases lined with keep-dry paper. Cases are all 
strapped with either iron or wire as they are usually 
heavy and all are made of lumber at least 1" thick. 



Steel bands ys'wide all way 
around at ends, nailed on. 
Also extra band J cross 
at middle 




Courtesy of E. C. Atkins & Company. 

Method of packing saws. 

' ' On our hand saws and saws for the hardware dealer, 
where it is important that the polish on the saw should 
not be dulled, we use a special preparation which we have 
developed ourselves which lacquers the saw and prevents 
rust without in any way interfering with the polish. 

' ' Our problem is to pack our goods in such a way that 
they will not rust and yet without interfering with the 
appearance of the saw, and also to pack in cases having 
sufficient strength to stand hard usage, as most of our 
products are extremely heavy for their sizes and we have 
found it necessary to study carefully the correct quan- 
tities of each article to be put into a case. We find it 
necessary to watch our packing force closely so that 
there will be no deterioration in the quality of material 
used and the extreme care necessary to ensure the ar- 
rival of goods in satisfactory condition." 



414 EXPORT PACKING 

Weighing Apparatus. — It is not always the concerns 
with the largest apparent consumer demand for their 
goods, nor again those manufacturing a line with 
"staple" characteristics that distinguish themselves pre- 
eminently in the field of export packing. In the course of 
the very extensive investigation that preceded the writ- 
ing of the book, the writer was impressed many times 
with the work that is being done and that has been done 
for many years by organizations active the world over, 
it is true, but that do not take up the first page of the 
newspaper every day. 

The above paragraph is particularly true in its ap- 
plication to the export work of one or two factories man- 
ufacturing weighing apparatus and scales. One of these 
factories has been in the export business for more than 
half a century and its activities have been characterized 
by a consistent effort to solve the export problem. It is 
interesting to note that this particular organization has 
proceeded along most commendable lines in determining 
what is and what is not adequate export packing, for fac- 
tory practice has been constantly checked up with results 
in the foreign field. The export package, therefore, in 
this particular case, represents an admirable blending 
of the technical viewpoint of the manufacturers and the 
practical utilitarian opinion of the consignee and user of 
the apparatus. 

A well known company sends several photographs 
illustrating its method of knocking down and pack- 
ing its weighing machines for export which are repro- 
duced on pages 416 and 419. Writing in this regard the 
company in question remarks : ' i Our method of packing 
the scales illustrated and other varieties, is the outgrowth 
of our factory practice covering a good deal more than 
half a century, and with it have been incorporated many 
valuable suggestions resulting from the assistance and co- 
operation of numerous correspondents and customers in 
a large volume of business with foreign countries. There 
has been a very limited amount of breakage reported in 
any of our shipments." The captions attached to the 




Courtesy of Greenfield Tap & Die Corp. 
Standard Case for Screw Plates. 
Shows waterproof envelope alivays employed in this case. 




Courtesy of 6-reenfield Tap & Die Corp. 
Packing of Screw Plates. 
Shows method of placing screw plates in waterproof envelope. 




Courtesy of Greenfield Tap & Die Corp. 
Case Eeady to be Closed. 
The waterproof envelope is here shown folded and ready to he sealed. 

415 




Courtesy of The Howe Scale Co. 
Portable Platform Scale Packed. 
Portable platform scale dismounted and placed in an uncovered case. 




hk 




Courtesy of The Howe Scale Co. 
Packing of a Counter Scale. 
Counter scale knocked down and packed in case. 
416 



THE PACKING OF SMALL APPARATUS 417 

several cuts reproduced will be found self-explanatory. 

The Packing of Shotguns. — A prominent exporter 
states : "We use the greatest care in packing, first cover- 
ing our guns with oil, after which they are wrapped in 
oil paper and then receive a second wrapping in strong 
packing paper. Following this they are packed in in- 
dividual corrugated paper cartons of good weight and 
strength. The stock and barrels are knocked down and are 
so arranged in the cartons that they cannot shift about 
or rattle in course of transit. Finally, these individual 
cartons are packed in a strong and well made wooden 
case. For distant points like Australia we line our cases 
with tin but for nearby points like Cuba and Mexico we 
do not consider the tin lining necessary. Our cases are 
made of strong, heavy, matched boards and have ade- 
quate iron strapping at both ends. ' ' 

The Packing of Handles. — A house doing an interna- 
tional business in handles writes: "Our axe, pick, 
sledge and similar handles are usually packed in closed 
cases, each containing ten dozen handles when they are 
destined for Europe and South American countries, but 
for Australia and New Zealand the cases usually con- 
taining only six dozen. Short handles, such as hammer 
and hatchet handles, are packed from twelve to twenty 
dozen to a case. All of our cases are made from sound 
lumber, its thickness depending on the style and quantity 
of handles to be packed. We always use cement coated 
nails and strap our cases with band iron. Occasionally 
we ship handles in heavy burlap bags tied with two or 
three ply sisal rope. We have had practically no trouble 
because of faulty packing and no claims for loss of goods 
on arrival in foreign countries." - 

The Packing of Forks, Hoes and Shovels. — A large 
manufacturer of forks, hoes and rakes states that "in 
packing forks, hoes and especially garden rakes some 
waste space cannot be avoided even though cases are 
made to fit the length of the tools as closely as possible. 
Hoes, for example, are laid in the case in the following 
way : A few hoes are laid with heads fitting one over an- 



418 EXPORT PACKING 

other, then a few more laid in the opposite direction, their 
heads fitting one on top of another, the ends of the sec- 
ond gronp or bundle being" close up to the heads of the 
first. This leaves more or less vacant space between the 
bundles and our customers are always urged to order 
separate handles for repair purposes or small tools with 
which this space can be filled. Such smaller articles can 
usually be packed with the larger tools without increasing 
the size of the cases and thus both freight and packing 
charge is saved, as we- pack the smaller tools without 
charge when they can be packed with other goods and 
do not necessitate a larger packing case." 

A large shipper of hay forks, rakes and handles sends 
the following description of his practice in shipping these 
commodities: "Hay forks, rakes and handles are usually 
packed loose from ten to twenty dozen in a case weighing 
gross from 360 to 900 pounds. The cases are made of 
from %" to %" lumber dressed on both sides, lined with 
oil paper and having from two to three bands of iron 
around each case, the number depending upon the weight 
of the case. We also pack handles in skeleton crates 
containing from ten to twelve dozen, and sometimes in 
bundles without crating, containing two dozen or twenty- 
five handles each." 

A house making a specialty of the manufacture of 
shovels, which has had wide experience in export work, 
sends two photographs, reproduced on page 420, which 
sufficiently explain the packing of the shovel blades. 
Handles are usually not packed in the same case with the 
blades as no vacant spaces are left in this style of pack- 
ing. The handles are usually tied together and shipped 
separately and, in fact, the shovels themselves are some- 
times bound together with wire and shipped in burlap 
bundles. 

The Packing of Small Apparatus.— A good example of 
the fashion in which small apparatus may properly be 
shipped for export is to be observed in the reproduction 
of a photograph (page 423) of a case containing 50 
water meters. The manufacturer describes this case as 





419 




Courtesy of The Wyoming 
Casing of Shovel Blades. 



ovel Works. 



These cases contain from 12 dozen to 15 dozen blades. Handles are not 
packed with blades but are shipped separately. 




wsst 



Courtesy of The Wyoming Shovel Works. 

Baling op Bound Shovel Blades. 

Shovels are burlapped, one dozen to a bundle. They are tied together with 
wire before burlapping and are shipped as shown. On the right is a case of 
blades ready for stenciling. 

420 



TEE PACKING OF SMALL APPARATUS 421 

follows: " These are boxed in cases containing five 
meters each, made of y 2 " N.C. pine with %" lumber 
dividing the compartments of each meter. The ten dif- 
ferent containers are then put into the master or shipping 
case which is made of %" N.C. pine with %" x 3" bat- 
tens on both ends and bottom, all securely bound with 
l 1 /^" band iron. This method of packing ten containers 
in a master shipping case is necessary to ensure safe 
ocean transportation of this class of material, and also 
serves to make pilfering during transit difficult." 

A prominent manufacturer of ball bearings writes: 
"In the first place we wrap our goods in oiled paper in 
individual cartons. The average packing case we use is 
made of 1" stock, double grooved, matched boards, cleated 
on the ends. We use a No. 16 cement coated nail and 
enough of them to secure maximum resistance without 
damaging the boards. The inside of the case is always 
lined with waterproof paper and the cases are made of 
any suitable size so that the bearings in their individual 
cartons pack closely, resulting in a gross weight on an 
average of 380 pounds. All cases are regularly strapped 
with metal." 

The Packing of Precision Instruments. — A manufac- 
turer of finely adjusted electrical instruments describes 
his packing methods as follows : \ ' Our method of pack- 
ing, which we have found highly successful, has been de- 
veloped in many years' experience in making foreign 
shipments. Our goods are of delicate construction and 
are subject to damage from shocks in transit. The ma- 
terial snipped is of the delicate character of watchwork 
and even though our problem is not so complicated as 
many, nevertheless it is not the simplest in the world. 
We have to take special precautions to see that all parts 
are properly cushioned with packing material to guard 
against shocks in transit. Of course, we have to use cases 
entirely, employing new boxes of %" lumber with panel 
ends. Each piece is carefully wrapped in moisture proof 
tarpaulin and the case itself is lined with similar ma- 
terial. All seams are glued and the cases strapped with 



422 EXPORT PACKING 

1" iron, the strapping extending around the ends of cases 
measuring up to 30" in length, and around the battens, 
spaced about one foot from each end, in the case of larger 
boxes. We have standardized on five cases of different 
sizes all of the same type of construction measuring 4, 7, 
11, 25 and 30'cubic feet. As our goods are light and must 
be adequately cushioned our largest case seldom exceeds 
600 pounds gross weight. In some instances, we use 
metal lined cases with soldered seams, but usually this 
method of packing is not deemed necessary. We have few 
complaints on account of damage in transit, very likely 
because our goods are light in weight and the cases are 
well designed and of sufficiently heavy material. ,, 

Automobile Lighting and Starting Apparatus. — The 
automatic starting apparatus now so generally used as 
an accessory in the manufacture of automobiles is prac- 
tically an American invention, and is rapidly being 
extended in its application to cars of European manufac- 
ture. This has developed a most promising overseas de- 
mand for the American manufacturer and in order to 
meet this demand good constructive work has had to be 
done in the export package. 

The problem here is the packing of a small unit, of a 
fairly robust character, but at the same time one that 
must be sufficiently protected against the hazards of the 
voyage. The export packing practice has developed a 
container, strongly built, containing compartments which 
in effect give each unit a nest of its own thoroughly iso- 
lated from the rest of the shipment. 

A manufacturing company doing an international 
business furnishes photographs (see pages 423, 424 and 
427), and comments as follows : "The first principle to be 
noted is that when two planks are necessary in building a 
box they should be tongued and grooved to guard against 
the opening of unseasoned material. Our cases are made 
from %" N.C. pine reenforced at both ends with cleats. 
It will be observed that each machine is contained in 
what is practically a box of its own, owing to the divisions 
which have been made. Before being packed all parts 



^^l^V. ^ 3 "? s 



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l%*w^I?*» Vi^w* ^?* »£*! 



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Courtesy of Wort7uwgr*(w Pump & Machinery Corp. 

Packing op Water Meters. 

Each meter is boxed in container made of y 2 " N. C. pine, the compartments 
being divided by %" lumber. Ten containers at a time are then placed in 
shipping case, which is made of %" pine. There are %" x 3" battens on both 
ends and bottom, all securely bound with 1^4" band iron. 





Courtesy of Bijur Motor Appliance Co. 

Packing of Generators. 

Each machine is separately wrapped and placed in individual compartment. 
Blocks used to keep generators in place can be seen in the empty compartment^. 

423 




Courtesy of Bijur Motor Appliance Co. 
Completed. Case for Generators. 

Photograph shows overlapping joint in cover and bottom, made to prevent 
opening caused by warping. 




Courtesy of Bijur Motor Appliance Co. 

Packing of Motors. 

Motors are packed in waterproof paper and placed in separate compartments. 
Blocks are used in bottom of cases to fill out under shafting. 

424 



TEE PACKING OF SMALL APPARATUS 425 

liable to exposure are greased and each machine is then 
securely packed in Safepack waterproof paper. We use 
%" steel binding around the ends of the cases which are 
nailed with 8-penny cement coated nails. The photograph 
shows the compartments which are made to hold each 
machine and the blocks to support shafting or extended 
parts.' ' 

The Packing of Sewing Machines. — A large manufac- 
turer of sewing machines in sending photographs of how 
his goods are packed (see pages 427, 428 and 435), 
writes: "All of our machines' before being packed for 
export are treated with an anti-rust preparation which 
protects all the bright parts while the goods are in tran- 
sit. Hand machines are packed individually in strong 
wooden boxes made to fit the machine and two, three or 
four are crated together with wooden cleats. Foot 
machines are packed flat, knocked down, in strong wooden 
cases lined with waterproof paper, each machine com- 
plete in its case. For some of our customers who so de- 
sire, certain models of our foot machines are packed two 
machines to a case, thus effecting some saving in weight 
and measurement. In fact, we employ various methods 
of packing as meeting the wishes and ideas of our agents 
in various foreign markets. 

"All of our packing cases are very strong and well 
made and it is seldom indeed that we hear of one of them 
being seriously damaged while in transit. In fact, we 
think that this operates against us in some cases because, 
as occasionally happens, a package containing a sewing 
machine drops out of a steamer's sling when being loaded 
or unloaded and strikes the dock or the deck of the ship. 
The case itself may withstand the shock though some of 
the iron castings therein may possibly be broken, and in 
such cases the customer is sure to take the position that 
the damage resulted from poor packing because there is 
no outside evidence of damage on the case. Fortunately, 
however, we have little trouble of this nature, and while 
we assume no responsibility for the safe delivery of the 
goods after they have left our hands in good condition, 



426 EXPORT PACKING 

we have always maintained a liberal policy with respect 
to furnishing a reasonable number of parts without 
charge to replace damages.' ' 

In connection with export shipments of sewing ma- 
chines, a prominent New York export merchant calls at- 
tention to a complaint in this respect received from a 
foreign customer, who states that out of a recent ship- 
ment of 24 machines four arrived in broken condition. 
This correspondent attributes the breakage to the fact 
that sufficient cushioning material was not used in pro- 
tecting the castings of the frames, and strenuously com- 
plains of the loss of sales and profits because of the dam- 
aged and useless condition of the machines when they 
were received. He is of the opinion that all iron castings 
ought to be nested in all-around packing of excelsior or 
some similar material, at least V and preferably 2" in 
thickness. In this same connection attention may be 
directed to the instructions issued by the General En- 
gineer Depot of the United States Army, which have been 
referred to in the chapter devoted to the packing of 
machinery, in the course of which it is to be remarked that 
these instructions provide that all castings forming parts 
of machines must be thus cushioned when they approach 
closely to the walls of the exterior case. 

Electric Fans and Motors. — A large manufacturer 
writes in regard to his packing that 8-inch fan motors 
are usually packed 18 in a case, the blades, guards and 
guard supports 36 sets in a case, which is always securely 
strap ironed. Nine-inch motors are usually packed 12 
in a case, the blades, guards and guard supports 24 sets 
in a case, while 12 and 16-inch fan motors are usually 
packed six in a case and the blades, guards and guard 
supports 24 sets in a case. 

Twelve and sixteen-inch ventilating fans are packed 
singly, each complete fan in a strap ironed box, three of 
these individual boxes being crated securely together. In 
the packing of ceiling fans the motors are packed in- 
dividually in iron strapped cases, the ceiling canopy, hook 
and insulated hanger being packed in the box with the 




Courtesy of Bijur Motor Appliance Co. 
Complete Case of Switch Panels. 

Switch panels comprising fuses, ammeter and switch individually wrapped 
and firmly held by means of excelsior. 




Courtesy of The New Home Sewing Machine Co. 
Disassembling of Sewing Machine. 
Photograph shows sewing machine disassembled ready to be placed in the case. 

427 







Courtesy of The New Home Sewing Machine Co. 

Casing of Sewing Machine. 

Woodwork and head placed in case. Head is wrapped and securely cleated 
to bottom of case. 




Courtesy of The New Home Sewing Machine Co. 

Method of Packing Sewing Machine. 

Case containing sewing machine ready for treadle castings. Note method 
of holding parts in place. 

428 



THE PACKING OF SMALL APPARATUS 429 

fan motor, three of these boxes being crated securely to- 
gether. The blades are packed four sets in a box, six of 
which are crated together. The hanger rods (if re- 
quired) are packed separately. 

Small motors are not packed individually but several 
are packed in a box according to the number of motors 
on the order and their sizes. Motors of from % h.p. 
upwards are usually boxed entirely and bolted on skids 
through the bottom of the box. They are braced from 
the top to hold them securely and the cases are lined with 
tar paper and strapped with band iron. 

Packing Bolts, Nuts and Rivets. — A large New York 
exporter doing business with the Dutch East Indies com- 
plains rather bitterly of the light barrels or boxes in 
which bolts, nuts and rivets are usually shipped, stating 
that he has not yet made a single shipment of these com- 
modities which arrived safely at port of destination. It 
has been his experience that a large percentage of the 
cases, boxes or barrels arrive broken with merchandise 
partly lost. Much stronger cases must be used and this 
exporter. advocates extra heavy and strong boxes thor- 
oughly well strapped and weighing gross not to exceed 
200 pounds. 

The Packing of Chains. — A manufacturer writes: 
"We manufacture chains of round material with welded 
links and in all sizes up to and including 2%" stud link 
cable chain. Sizes larger than 1" are shipped loose, not 
packed in any way. Small sizes of chain are shipped in 
heavy oil barrels well coopered and in some instances are 
ordered packed in wooden cases, but this involves an 
additional charge because of the heavy expense for this 
style of packing. f ' 

Another manufacturer of chains states: "Some of 
our chains are packed in bags, some in crates, some loose 
and some simply wrapped in paper. We are very careful 
to line all cases and barrels with waterproof paper and 
usually sprinkle over the chains a non-hydrating product 
in order to prevent rust during transit. Small sizes of 
cases and barrels are used in shipping to the West Coast 



430 EXPORT PACKING 

of South America, but in principle we have to follow the 
instructions of the importers in different parts of the 
world which vary with almost every country." 

The Packing of Tin Plate. — No little discussion has 
arisen regarding the proper packing of tin plate for ex- 
port since the American industry in this line assumed 
such large proportions as the result of the great war. 
The American purchasing agent for large meat packing 
establishments in South America states in a letter that 
so many complaints were received, both from merchants 
as well as from packing houses, to the effect that tin plate 
had been delivered in very poor condition, in some cases 
accompanied by very disagreeable claims, that he has 
persuaded his clients to order all tin plate shipped in tin 
lined cases. He writes that "the thin material used in 
the absence of tin linings will not suffice to convey any 
case of tin plate to South America with any degree of 
assurance that it will be delivered in good condition." 

An important New York exporter of steel products 
writes that when tin plate is packed in a box designed for 
domestic shipment and entirely satisfactory for that pur- 
pose, it has been found in experience that such a package 
is entirely unsatisfactory for export even when it is tin 
lined and strongly strapped. Foreign buyers, this ex- 
porter urges, must be persuaded to pay for the expense 
of providing extra strong wooden cases built to stand 
transhipment, if not for the additional charge of adequate 
tin lining. 

A large manufacturer of tin plate states in a letter : 
"About 75 per cent of tin plate shipped for export moves 
out in wooden boxes with iron straps around the ends 
of the boxes. We have endeavored for a long time to 
standardize tin plate packing by having all consumers 
take their tin plate packed in tin lined cases, hermetically 
sealed, and with the wooden box iron strapped around the 
edges, but this additional cost of packing amounts to an 
average of about $1 per unit and is looked on as an ex- 
cessive cost added to the merchandise; yet the claims 
arising from the handling of the material, due to dam- 



THE PACKING OF SMALL APPARATUS 431 

aged cases and damaged tin plate, almost equals this 
additional cost without calculating the annoyance and 
injury that is done the plate in general. 

"One point that has done more than anything else to 
discourage the adopting of the tin lined case for our 
packing, has been the excessive high cost of our product 
for the last five or six years. Perhaps we will be more 
successful as we get down to a more reasonable price 
for this commodity which would not only reduce the cost 
of this special packing, but would not be so serious a 
factor in the cost of material. " 




Courtesy of American Steel Export Co. 

Method of packing tin plate. 

There seems to be some difference of opinion among 
manufacturers and exporters as to the proper additional 
charge for lining shipping cases with tin. A prominent 
house sends the drawing shown above and states in a 
letter : * ' The usual method of packing is in light wooden 
boxes, containing 56, 112 or 224 sheets, iron strapped all 
the way round full length of the box. If the plates are 
likely to come in contact with water or excessive damp- 
ness they should be packed in a tightly soldered metal 
envelope inside the wooden box. When packed in this 
manner they are protected against moisture and may 
safely be stored. There is an additional charge for these 
tin lined cases, based on the actual cost of material and 
labor. This charge may be estimated at 25 cents per base 
box of 14" x 20" — 112 sheets, which would be the mini- 
mum charge." 

The Packing of Wire. — An experienced shipper states 
that the different markets require different styles of 



432- EXPORT PACKING 

packing of wire, which is sometimes shipped in bundles 
protected with paper and burlaping or sometimes in bur- 
laping alone, especially when it is a shipment of galvan- 
ized wire. All wire from No. 25 to 30 gauge should be 
packed in specified weight bundles and wrapped in paper 
in addition to burlap, while wire finer than No. 30 gauge 
should be packed in barrels. The best ways of thus pack- 
ing have been explained in the chapter devoted to the 
packing of barreled goods. 

The Packing of Wire Nails. — Wire nails are usually 
exported in strong kegs, the heads of which are reen- 
f orced top and bottom with steel cleats. Linings of heavy 
waterproof tarred paper are employed by one large ship- 
per to protect the nails from damage from moisture. Fur- 
ther details regarding shipments in kegs, barrels, etc., 
are included in the special chapter devoted to barreled 
goods. 



CHAPTER XVI 

EXPORT PACKING OF GLASS, GLASSWARE AND 
EXCEPTIONALLY FRAGILE GOODS 

NOTHING surely can be more obvious than that the 
packing of glass, glassware, commodities shipped 
in containers of glass, and all similarly fragile 
merchandise, to undergo satisfactorily the many and 
serious hazards of overseas shipment, involves problems 
calling for not alone the highest skill, but a thorough- 
going scientific study of the packer's art, and all con- 
ditions, possibilities and results. Very likely it may be 
true that it is a physical impossibilty so to pack glass, 
and other exceedingly fragile merchandise, that breakage 
will be absolutely prevented. At the same time, it is 
plainly so much to the advantage of the future trade of 
manufacturers and shippers of such merchandise that 
their products arrive in the hands of their customers 
with a minimum of damage, that this problem should be 
regarded as peculiarly deserving of attention. Most im- 
porters in other countries of the world are always willing 
to pay somewhat better prices for goods of this descrip- 
tion, when they can be assured that the contents of the 
cases, when received, will be unbroken, or involve com- 
paratively little loss. Manufacturers must remember 
that breakage not only causes extra expense to cus- 
tomers, but deprives them of goods which may be ur- 
gently needed for sale, on whose safe arrival the im- 
porter may have been counting. Some manufacturers 
offer to make good any loss from breakage due to careless 
packing, but the mere refunding of the cost of broken 
goods, or of supplying new goods in place of those dam- 
aged, is by no means sufficient, for it is to be remembered 
that tne consignee has paid ocean freights, import duties, 

433 



434 EXPORT PACKING 

landing and many other charges on the goods which have 
arrived broken and nseless. 

Unfortunately it is doubtless true that the United 
State has not, in recent years, achieved a wholly enviable 
reputation for packing glass and glassware. The man- 
ager of the Chilean office of a large New York export 
house states, that the average breakage of American 
glassware shipped to South America ranges from 20 per 
cent to 35 per cent, caused absolutely by poor packing, 
whereas the average breakage of European glassware, 
because of the excellence of that packing, runs only from 
2 per cent up to 5 per cent. Complaints of this descrip- 
tion were very notable soon after the outbreak of the 
great war, when the stoppage of European shipments of 
window glass and plate glass, and in general all kinds % 
of glassware, brought export opportunities to the door 
of American manufacturers of such goods which they 
had never enjoyed before. Complaints of breakages 
amounting to as much as 50 per cent and 60 per cent were 
at first by no means uncommon. Fortunately we seem 
to have learned rapidly how to improve our packing of 
such materials, for statements have recently been made 
by South American importers that the breakage on Amer- 
ican goods has of late been only about 6 per cent, as an 
average. However, even this percentage is excessive, as 
will be seen from a comparison of the percentage of Euro- 
pean goods which arrive in similar ports in better export 
packages. In some markets the English packing is re- 
garded as the best, and there seem to have been several 
different kinds of packing employed by English manu- 
facturers, some of them winding glass in straw and se- 
curely fastening it in the case, and others employing 
cases with wooden partitions. On the other hand, Bel- 
gian manufacturers are commended by many importers, 
and manufacturers of that country seem to have set the 
example, which is now being most generally followed by 
American manufacturers, of employing the "floated" 
package — that is to say, of packing the goods themselves 
in separate cases and sometimes in cartons which are 








Courtesy of The New Home Sewing Machine Co. 
Case Containing Sewing Machine. 
Photograph shows all parts of sewing machine in case ready for cover. 




Courtesy of Hazel-Atlas Glass Co. 



Packing of Jars and Tumblers. 

Case shown at left contains small opal jars and is lined with oil paper to 
protect metal caps of jars. Jars are packed three to a package wrapped in 
heavy paper and are further protected by refuse prairie grass. At right is shown 
case containing nested tumblers individually wrapped in paper and packed; 
flat. Note protective lining of prairie grass. 

435 





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436 



EXPORT PACKING OF FRAGILE GOODS 437 

floated on top and bottom cushions and between walls of 
excelsior, or other similar material. The Japanese are 
said to have a way of packing glassware which makes a 
compact and fairly safe package, each article being 
wrapped in grass or straw, and nested whenever possible. 

It must always be remembered, in the packing of 
highly fragile commodities of any description, that ship- 
ping cases containing such goods will be subject to pre- 
cisely the identical treatment to which cases of hardware 
or any other commodities are subject, in loading aboard 
steamers, unloading into lighters, rough handling on 
shore, etc. The warning signal " Glass — Handle With 
are, ' f no matter how big the letters with which it is sten- 
ciled on the outside of a case, cannot be relied upon to 
influence the heart or the hand of the longshoreman in 
the United States or in any other country, even if he 
understands the English language, which in our export 
markets is rarely the case. Shipments of glass or simi- 
larly fragile goods are likely to have dropped upon them 
at any time a ton or two of steel rails, lard, or something 
else, or just as likely to fall out of ships' slings onto 
decks or quays as are cases of boots and shoes. Shipping 
cases must be so constructed, and the contents so pro- 
tected, that our customers in other countries will be fully 
satisfied with their trade with us, and contrast our 
methods favorably with those of competing manufactur- 
ers in other countries. 

Export Packing of Sheet Glass. — Before the war, 
English and Belgian window and plate glass virtually 
controlled the markets of the world, and considerable Bel- 
gian glass was imported by the United States. The 
English packing was commended by importers in some 
markets for its ample cases of heavy lumber, usually 
from 12 to 16 plates being put into a case, tissue paper 
separating the plates, and preventing scratching. A layer 
of wood shavings was usually employed in the bottom of 
the case, and a smaller layer placed on top, and shavings 
stuffed tightly all around. From 8 to 10 of these smaller 
cases were then packed in the large outside container, 



438 EXPORT PACKING 

tightly stuffed all around with straw, and finally strongly 
banded with iron strapping. Breakage resulting when 
this style of packing was employed is described as being 
insignificant. Belgian manufacturers packed their sheet 
glass tightly in a light case similar to that usually em- 
ployed by American manufacturers in their domestic 
trade. This was enclosed in a strong, heavy outside case, 
of sufficient size that ample cushioning was provided on 
all sides of the inside case, which contained the glass. 
Thus any blows received were distributed in such a man- 
ner that the glass itself was practically uninjured. Some 
importers have recommended that instead of having the 
walls of the inside case parallel with those of the outer 
case, it should lie diagonally, with two corners touching 
the outside case, but the two opposite corners thoroughly 
cushioned. This fashion of packing is thought by some, 
when the cushions are ample and properly made, to re- 
duce still further the risk of damage from shocks. 

Through the courtesy of a large American manufac- 
turer, there are reproduced on page 436 three cuts 
which illustrate clearly the different packages which this 
manufacturer has adopted. The company states that 
the lumber employed in the packing cases is usually 
North Carolina pine, but occasionally hemlock and chest- 
nut, from %" to 1" for the sides, and from 1" to 
±14" for the ends, top and bottom, when single cases 
are employed. Double export cases are the same, so far 
as the outer case is concerned, but lighter lumber is em- 
ployed for the inner case, usually %" thick for the sides, 
%" to 1" for the ends and bottom, and %" for the top. 
Hay or straw is used by this manufacturer in packing 
plate glass and window glass, and very often excelsior 
is used in the packing of mirrors. All glass is embedded 
in heavy packing ranging from 1" to 3" in thickness, 
around bottom, top, ends and sides. Paper placed be- 
tween the plates prevents the immediate contact of the 
glass, and is used in packing both mirrors and plate glass. 
In the case of mirrors, there is also always an envelope 
of waterproof paper, and when mirrors are shipped to 



EXPORT PACKING OF FRAGILE GOODS 439 

tropical countries, cases are tin-lined, as a final precau- 
tion against moisture. Cases are well battened, and en- 
circled with substantial iron strapping. 

Further and more detailed particulars are supplied 
as follows: window glass is packed in cases containing 
from 50 to 100 square feet each. Gross weights of in- 
dividual cases vary somewhat, but average about as 
follows : 

50' cases — single strength 85 pounds per case 

double strength 110 " "■ " 

100' cases — single strength ; 150 " " " 

double strength 200 " " " 

Cases containing 60', 70', 80' and 90' vary proportion- 
ately in gross weight. Hay or straw is used as a bedding. 
Thickness of packing depends on the size of the glass and 
case, and varies from %" to l 1 /^" on all sides. Packing 
cases for export, as a rule, are determined by allowing 
i/4" for each three lights, single, or 12 to the inch ; and %" 
for each two lights, of double, or 8 to the inch — allowing 
%" packing space tm each side, or l 1 /^" to the case. No 
head is cut any less than 2%", which would mean that on 
the larger sizes there might be a little more than 1%" 
packing space. The cases are 2" higher than width of the 
glass, and 6" longer than the length. However, this does 
not hold good on the smaller sizes. On the 14", 15", 16" 
and 18" widths the case is 1" higher, but on the 20" and 
above, 2" higher. Solid lumber, usually y 2 " thick, is 
employed for the sides, and %" to %" for the top, bottom 
and ends. Cases measuring over 70 united inches have 
battens at the top, bottom and sides, and frequently on 
the ends. In packing cases of 100 square feet in 40" 
bracket, or less, there are two compartments in the case, 
separated by a wood partition. 

When figuring on export orders, it is necessary first to 
know what the gross weight is to be, and then to deter- 
mine the proper number of feet to be packed in each case. 
For instance, the following table should be considered, 
in which 750 pounds has been taken as the gross weight 
of the case, and the sizes worked out accordingly. 



440 



EXPORT PACKING 



In making single solid cases, all the lumber should be 
very sound, and. of 1" thickness. It should be in the 
rough, with the exception of the lid, one side of which 
should be planed for stenciling. There should be a 2" 
cushion of straw on the bottom, top and both ends, and 
on the sides there should be 1" of straw between the glass 
and the box. 



INFORMATION FOR FIGURING SIZE OF BOXES FOR EXPORT SHIPMENTS 


SINGLE SOLID CASES 


Gross 

Weight 

of 

Case 


Size of 
Glass 


Lts. 
Per 
Box 


Size Each 14 Lts. 


Inside Dimensions, 


Outside Dimensions 


Width 


Height 


Length 


Width 


Height 


Length 


Width 


Height 


Length 


750# 


24"x60" 


14 


5" 


24" 


60" 


7" 


28" 


64" 


11" 


30" 


68" 


750# 


24"x60" 


10 


4" 


DOU 

24" 


BLE SOL 
60" 


ID CAS 

Ou 
13" 

In 
6" 


ES 

tside C 
35" 

side C 
28" 


ase 

70" 
ase 

64" 


Ou 
17" 

In 
9" 


tside C 
37" 

side C 
30" 


ase 

74" 
ase 

66" 



For the double solid cases the same size glass and 
same gross weight have been used, and in arriving at fig- 
ures for size of boxes the procedure shown above and in 
accordance with table mentioned is followed. The out- 
side box should be made of 1" sound, rough lumber, and 
the ends, bottom and lid of the inside box should be made 
of 1" rough lumber, and the sides of %" rough lumber. 
Rails and braces should be of 1" rough lumber. In pack- 
ing a double, solid box for export, a 2" cushion of straw 
is first placed in the bottom of the outside box. The in- 
side box is then placed inside of it, and straw is packed 
all around the ends and sides, which makes a 2" cushion 
of straw between the inside and the outside box. A 2" 
cushion of straw is placed in the bottom of the inside 
box, and the glass then placed in this box. Ten lights 
would measure about ?>y± in width (which may be calle'd 
4"), 24" high and 60" long. Straw is then packed all 
around the glass and on the top of the glass, which makes' 
a2" cushion of straw on the bottom, ends and top, and a 
1" cushion on the sides between the glass and the box. 
The lid is then put on the inside box. Another cushion 
of straw 2" thick is placed on the top of the lid of the in- 




Courtesy of Hazel-Atlas Glass Co. 
Packing of Tumblers. 

Shows ware before packing. Note that tumblers are each wrapped in paper. 
Those at the left are to be packed nested and flat, while those at the right are 
to be packed singly and up and down. 




Courtesy of Hazel-Atlas Glass Co. 
Method of Packing Small Bottles. 

Case is divided by partition and lined with felt paper. Felt paper is placed 
between each row and each layer of bottles. 

441 




Courtesy of Hazel-Atlas Glass Co. 
Method of Packing Fruit Jars. 

Case is lined with waterproof paper to protect metal parts of jars. Felt 
paper is wound around each jar and is placed between each layer of jars. 




Courtesy of Parke, Davis & Co. 
Packing of Pharmaceutical Products. 

Illustration at left shows method of packing peroxide in individual cartons, 
3 dozen being put in heavy carton packer. Six large cartons fill case. Illustra- 
tion at right shows packing of long-necked, square bottles in cases of 6 dozen 
each. Each bottle is provided with straw sleeve, and I dozen bottles are 
packed to a carton. 

442 



EXPORT PACKING OF FRAGILE GOODS 443 

side box, the lid of the outside box is nailed on, and one 
side of the lid of the outside box is planed for stenciling. 

It is customary to pack polished plate glass and mir- 
rors in cases from 100 to 500 or 600 square feet each, de- 
pending on destination. Both single and double casing 
is used for mirrors, but rarely for plate glass. The 
gross weight of case packed varies according to the quan- 
tity of glass in the case. When packed in single cases, the 
gross weight is estimated at from 4% to 5% pounds per 
square foot of glass contained in the case. When packed 
in double cases, the gross weight is increased from 50 to 
75 per cent. 

Packing of Bottles, Table Glassware, Etc. — A prom- 
inent American manufacturer of milk bottles states that 
he packs his products in crates containing 6 dozen quarts, 
6 dozen pints and 12 dozen half-pints, similar to the 
crates employed for domestic shipment, except heavier 
and stronger. Bottles are protected each from its neigh- 
bor by a padding of felt paper, usually the ordinary 
carpet paper being employed. 

A large manufacturer and exporter of bottles and 
fancy glassware submits a number of excellent photo- 
graphs, reproduced on pages 435, 441, 442, and in writing 
regarding the company's packing, states : "When we first 
started to ship to the export trade our packing was un- 
doubtedly very crude, but we have not at any time lost 
sight of the advantage of properly protecting our ware, 
with the result that we have been able to standardize our 
packages in such a way as to give maximum protection to 
the contents. As we ship to practically every port in the 
world in considerable quantities, with a rare claim for 
breakage, we have come to the conclusion that our pack- 
ages are sufficient protection to the ware and will carry 
without damage to the contents, unless the shipment is 
roughly handled en route, in which case, on account of 
the brittle nature of the product, damage of course can 
be expected. We have made test shipments to various 
parts of the world, having the shipments returned to the 
factory for inspection by our factory people, and all of 



444 EXPORT PACKING 

the test shipments made were returned to the factory 
with practically no breakage. In addition to test ship- 
ments which we have made from time to time, we have 
checked up with our clients the condition of the shipments 
when delivered, and the invariable report is that the cases 
were in good shape and the contents without breakage 
sufficient to justify a complaint. While we feel that pur 
packages at the present time are substantial in every 
way, and fully protect the ware, yet we are not altogether 
satisfied, and we are constantly experimenting with new 
packages, and it is our hope that some time in the future 
we will be able to develop a package to our own satisfac- 
tion and the satisfaction of our trade, which will be ideal 
for a product such as ours. As we have a reputation to 
maintain, not only at home, but in the foreign fields, this 
matter is given close attention at all times, and the super- 
vision at the factory is very close, so you will understand 
that we are in the foreign market to stay and that it will 
be our endeavor at all times to maintain the standards 
already set, and increase the efficiency of our packages 
wherever possible. 

"We have tried various materials, such as excelsior, 
wheat and oat straw, but we have found, in connection 
with these articles, that if the ware is packed and allowed 
to remain in stock for a period of two to three months, 
the packing dries out to such an extent that it becomes 
very brittle, and when shipped to the export market the 
natural action in the shifting of the cargo causes the 
packing materials to pulverize and fall to the bottom of 
the case, allowing very little protection for the ware. 
This has reference to our tumblers, opal jars and small 
bottle shipments, and to offset this we decided that each 
tumbler should be wrapped separately in heavy paper, 
the opal jars, where packed in bulk, to be wrapped three 
to a package, and that an entirely different protection was 
required for the small flint bottles. In addition to wrap- 
ping each tumbler separately and nesting where possible, 
the rows are supported, as the photographs will show, 
by an insulation of refuse grass which is secured from 



EXPORT PACKING OF FRAGILE GOODS 445 

the carpet factories in the Northwest, and which is very 
tough and will not "break up as is the case with the straw. 
The rows of opal jars as packed in the case are also 
insulated by the insertion of the same grade of material, 
which, on account of the thickness of this insulation, fully 
protects the ware under normal transportation con- 
ditions. 

i i The packing of the small bottles for inks, pomades, 
and shoe polishes was very difficult, and we finally de- 
cided to test our packages, protecting the ware with in- 
dented felt paper strips cut to the size of the articles, 
which strip is entwined around the bottle and protects it 
on all sides. The bottles are packed in tiers, and each 
tier is separated one from the other by a pad of indented 
felt paper, and the cases lined throughout with the same 
material. 

"The packing of our jars for jams and preserves was 
also very difficult, and it was found that the use of hay 
or straw would not fully protect the ware, so the felt 
paper packing used identically the same way as the small 
bottle packages was decided on, and we have for the past 
three years been using this type of package. As the 
photographs will show, all cases where a cap is fitted to 
the jar or bottle are lined throughout with a waterproof 
paper, so as to prevent moisture getting to the caps and 
causing corrosion. 

"You realize that it is practically impossible to pro- 
cure lumber at this time to meet certain standards to 
which we endeavor to adhere, and at times we are forced 
to use an inferior grade. Our specifications provide for 
hardwood lumber, and we endeavor to secure the best 
grade of this type that the market can produce. Our 
cases are made up in %" lumber, heavily reenf orced at 
the ends to make the case as rigid as possible, so as to 
withstand hard knocks. The factories all use cement- 
coated nails, and in addition to the nailing of the cases 
they are all iron-bound, as a further protection.' ' 

A New York export house, doing business with South 
Africa, draws attention in a letter to the possible effect 



440 EXPORT PACKING 

on a manufacturer's export business of the indifference 
or ignorance displayed in the attention given to the ques- 
tion of packing glassware for export. A South African 
customer recently described to this merchant his experi- 
ence in importing American lamp chimneys. One manu- 
facturer simply packed the chimneys in straw or excel- 
sior," and the loss, through breakage, on every shipment 
was considerable. Another American house was found 
which packs each chimney in a carton, and ships, care- 
fully packed, in cases of 6 dozen each, with the result 
that there is scarcely a chimney broken in any shipment 
which has been received. It is not difficult to judge where 
this importer's future orders will be placed. South Afri- 
can importers have also complained, according to this 
merchant, of the American packing of fruit jars, there 
still being considerable loss from breakage in shipments 
received from some manufacturers. 

Another New York exporter, doing business with the 
northern coast of South America, where harbor and land- 
ing conditions are not of the best, suggests that barrels 
or cases containing glassware should not exceed from 125 
to 150 pounds each, in order to facilitate handling on ar- 
rival and in inland transportation, and while the outside 
containers must be strong, yet in these countries they 
must be as light as possible to avoid payment of excessive 
duties, and so made that they can be readily opened for 
examination at the custom houses without entailing un- 
necessary destruction of the cases. This exporter be- 
lieves that excelsior is the best material for stuffing or 
interior packing because of its lightness and elasticity, 
claiming that where cheap hay is used it often mats to- 
gether and allows motion, with consequent breakage of 
the contents. It is believed that bottles, if possible, 
should be wrapped in porous paper. 

Another American export house writes that there has 
been a distinct improvement in the American packing of 
glassware, but that there still continues a considerable 
amount of breakage, especially when glassware is merely 
packed in hay or straw in casks or barrels. This ex- 




Courtesy of E. R. Squibb & Sons. 

Packing of One-Pound Glass Bottles. 

Bottles are packed in corrugated partitions with a 2" outside layer of ex- 
celsior and an additional layer of excelsior on top. Case is lined icith water- 
proof paper. 




Courtesy of E. R. Squibb d Sons. 
Packing of Bottles Containing Tablets. 



Case contains cartons of medicinal tablets in bottles, 
of the case show corrugated packing between bottles, 
afforded by a 2" layer of excelsior. 

447 



The cartons on top 
Extra protection is 




Courtesy of Henry Heide. 

Method of Packing Hard Candies. 

Glass jars containing hard candies packed in two layers of 36 each. Mats of 
corrugated paper are laid on bottom and around sides of case, between layers, 
and on top of case. Corrugated partitions are used between jars. 




HUM DE CAT. 16 

TIMTA 
COMMERCIAL 





Method of Packing 



NUM QECAT. 16 
TI^fTA 

COMMERCIAL 

Courtesy of S. S. Stafford, Inc. 
Writing Inks, 



Case at left contains one dozen quart bottles enclosed in cartons of corrugated 
board and Strang brown paper. Corrugated board mats line sides, top and 
bottom. Case at right contains four layers of SO small bottles each separated 
by corrugated board. Top, bottom, and sides of case are likewise lined with 
this material. 

448 



EXPORT PACKING OF FRAGILE GOODS 449 

porter advocates the use of corrugated paper as an en- 
velope for bottles, and thinks that much thicker paper 
ought to be employed than is usually the case, and that 
the smaller and particularly the more expensive goods 
should be carefully done up in packages, with the num- 
bers and contents of each written on them, to facilitate 
identification and checking, as well as assisting in pre- 
venting damage. 

Packing of Cut Glass and Crockery. — Some time be- 
fore the war a German concern engaged in importing 
American cut glass complained rather bitterly that al- 
though the outside packages, when received, appeared to 
be intact, yet there was a large amount of breakage in 
every shipment, which it attributed to the fact that the 
straw employed for the packing of these goods was not 
sufficient in amount, and was not spaced accurately all 
around each article and throughout the whole extent of 
the package. The casks and barrels seemed to be suf- 
ficiently strong, but not enough thought had been given 
to the effects on the interior packing of the long voyage 
and the unusual treatment which shipping cases have to 
undergo when forwarded by rail, lighter, steamer, river 
boat, etc. 

A prominent exporter of cut glass writes that his 
products are always wrapped individually in paper, each 
wrapper bearing a number and description, to facilitate 
checking of invoices at the other end. This exporter al- 
ways ships cut glass in barrels, believing there is less 
danger of breakage when forwarded in barrels rather 
than in cases. This matter will be found referred to in 
the special chapter devoted to shipments of barreled 
goods. The barrels employed are lined with waterproof 
paper, and the greatest care is exercised in separately 
padding each individual item, while packing all snugly 
and tightly. 

In the packing of chinaware either cases or barrels 
are employed — barrels usually, unless there are a number 
of square or cartoned packages in the assortment. The 
different pieces of chinaware are separated by layers of 



450 EXPORT PACKING 

excelsior and placed on top of a bed of excelsior in the 
bottom of the barrel or case, and a similar layer finishes 
the top packing. If the china has gilt decoration it is 
first wrapped in paper, in order that the decoration may 
not be scratched. English shippers are said to be very 
particular in the protection given to all gold decorations, 
usually employing a fine grade of tissue paper. They 
usually employ straw instead of excelsior, and more often 
cases than barrels, probably because barrels are not quite 
so common or cheap as they are in this country. 

Packing of Products in Glass Containers. — Under this 
heading there may be considered a very large class of 
American products of wide variety, ranging from per- 
fumery and toilet preparations to medicines, drugs, ink, 
confectionery, jams, pickles and other foodstuffs/ All 
commodities packed in glass containers should have even 
more attention devoted 'to' their proper protection for 
overseas shipment than would naturally be devoted to the 
same bottles or other containers if shipped empty, for 
the reason that the additional weight of the filled bottles 
or jars introduces a further element of risk, and further- 
more, these products are usually intended for counter or 
shelf display purposes, and hence they must arrive with 
attractive exteriors as well as with complete, undamaged 
and salable contents. Furthermore there must be con- 
sidered, in the packing of such commodities, the very 
great danger of pilferage, and in that regard reference 
should be made to other pages in this volume, in which 
protection against pilfering is more particularly dealt 
with. 

One of the prominent American manufacturers of 
pharmaceutical products allows the reproduction of ex- 
cellent photographs (see page. 442) which give a good idea 
of the export packing which this manufacturer supplies. 
In further describing his packing he writes: "The first 
photograph represents a standard case of 18 dozen Hy- 
drogen Peroxide in 4-ounce bottles. As to outside pack- 
ing, this case is made up of %" wood, reenforced at ends 
with 4" strips, as shown in the photograph. Each case is 



EXPORT PACKING OF FRAGILE GOODS 451 

strapped with a wide metal strapping, which is nailed 
every four inches. It is to be noted that all four sides 
of the case are made up with the least possible number 
of boards. As to the inside packing, each bottle is placed 
in its individual carton, 3 dozen packages being placed 
in a heavy carton packer with inner corrugated lining 
and corrugated partitions, within which each of the in- 
dividual cartons fits snugly ; the entire arrangement pre- 
vents movement of the packages, and also should one of 
the bottles by any chance become broken it is held in place 
by the corrugated partitions, thus preventing the move- 
ment and consequent breaking up of the balance of the 
contents while en route. Six cartons fit into the wooden 
case, which is practically built around them in such a 
snug fashion as to obviate necessity for straw or hay 
packing in between the sides. To take up the slight space 
which sometimes occurs in the top of the case, sheets of 
corrugated carton are simply laid in before the cover is 
nailed on. 

"The second photograph represents a 12-ounce long 
neck, square bottle, and these, because of their size, are 
packed in standard shipping cases of 6 dozen each, put 
up in heavy corrugated cartons of 1 dozen bottles. In 
packing these we use an individual straw jacket or sleeve 
for each bottle ; 12 fit snugly within the carton, which has 
an inner corrugated liner for added protection, and for 
preventing movement while en route, the jacket acting 
as a cushion between the bottles. A straw mat is placed 
in the bottom and on top of bottles in each packer." 

Another well known manufacturer of pharmaceutical 
products submits several photographs of his export pack- 
ing, reproduced on page 447, whose captions are self-ex- 
planatory. In these photographs there are to be noted 
the corrugated partitions dividing glass battles, the 2" 
outside layer of excelsior, the lining of waterproof paper, 
or hermetically sealed tin, etc. 

A New York export merchant, in writing regarding 
shipments of bottled goods for export, points out that 
corrugated sleeves or cartons can only be successfully 



452 EXPORT PACKING 

employed for packing bottles when the bottles are not 
so heavy that they are likely to break or flatten out the 
cartons. This result not only injures the salability of 
the goods, but allows the bottles very quickly to work 
loose and knock each other to pieces, and of course as 
soon as one bottle breaks all the rest are in danger. This 
exporter states that English manufacturers successfully 
used sawdust in packing small boxes, practically elimin- 
ating breakage. 

One of the complaints received regarding the ship- 
ment of American food products in jars has been that 
the partitions used in dividing the interior of cases into 
pigeon-holes have not been strong enough, or firmly 
enough fastened, and preferably should extend from the 
top to the bottom of the box. . 

A well known American manufacturer of confection- 
ery supplies a photograph (see page 448), explaining that 
the cases illustrated measure about 2% cubic feet, con- 
taining hermetically sealed glass jars in two layers of 36 
each, the case weighing, gross, about 80 pounds. A mat 
of corrugated paper is laid on the bottom of the case, 
around all of the sides, and finally over the top, and cor- 
rugated paper partitions separate the jars so that they 
cannot rattle one against another, and the two layers 
of jars are separated by mats of corrugated paper. This 
manufacturer uses iron bands around each end and 
around the middle of his cases. It is suggested, however, 
that more thorough protection along lines just above 
indicated might conduce to safety in transit. 

A manufacturer of writing inks submits photographs 
of his packing (see page 448), explaining that his quart 
bottles are enclosed in cartons made of corrugated board 
and strong brown paper, sealed top and bottom. The case 
itself, of strong, substantial lumber, is lined with cor- 
rugated board mats — top, bottom and sides. Two cases, 
each containing 1 dozen quarts, are strapped together 
with strong iron strapping, to make a single shipping 
package. The pint and half -pint sizes are similarly 
packed, only 4 cases of each are strapped together into 




*• Courtesy of The Carter's Ink Co. 

Another Method of Packing Fluids. 

Bottles containing fluids or semi-fluids separated by sheaves of excelsior or 
partitions of corrugated board. 




volume s ; ,7 1 i n t ps ; 17 si 9 ?^' 20 

OF OLD FORM & ulb oizes Bulb sizes 

OF PACKING 



S-21 S-14 

Bulb Size Bulb Size 

VOLUME OF NEW FORM OF PACKING 



COMPARATIVE VOLUME OF 1000 LAMPS IN THE OLD AND NEW FORMS OF PACKING 

Courtesy of International General Electric Co. 

Method of Keducing Volume of Package. 

This drawing shows graphically the sawing effected by a change in packing 
methods. 



453 



. 





Courtesy of International General Electric Co. 
(1) Methods of Packing Electric Lamps. 

The new bundle, at left, wrapped in kraft paper presents, with its neat, secure 
compactness, a decided advantage over the old form of string-tied bundle. 




Courtesy of International General Electric Co. 
(2) New and Old Form of Bundles in Standard Box. 

The paper bundle is better adapted to the square package than is the bundle 
tied with string. Note the uniform distribution of excelsior and the elimina- 
tion of the wasteful corners in the improved method shown at left. 



454 



EXPORT PACKING OF FRAGILE GOODS 455 

a single package. Other bottles, square in shape, are 
themselves quite strong, but are protected by 4 walls of 
corrugated board. They are packed in 4 layers of bot- 
tles, each layer containing 36, and layers are separated 
by corrugated board, with which also the entire case is 
lined. 

Another manufacturer of inks, library paste, and 
other office preparations, illustrates his export packing 
by a photograph, reproduced on page 453, which shows 
both interior and exterior packing of glass bottles con- 
taining liquids or semi-fluids, having sheaves of excel- 
sior, or separated by partitions of corrugated board. All 
goods are iron strapped, and cement nails and all pos- 
sible precautions are employed. 

Packing of Incandescent Lamps.— The effort in ex- 
port packing of incandescent lamps has constantly been 
directed toward the problem of decreasing bulk just as 
far as such might be consistent with safety. The com- 
modity in this case is extremely fragile, and the filament 
of the lamp is in turn fragile, it being quite possible to 
have a shipment go through without breaking the lamp, 
but with a considerable number of the filaments broken. 
The vital necessity for a proper package was thus 
quickly recognized, and one of the large makers of lamps 
has spent thousands of dollars in experimental work at 
the Forest Products Laboratory, at Madison, Wisconsin, 
and in its own laboratory, for the purpose of discovering 
the proper package. 

The European practice differs considerably from the 
American, for the custom abroad has been to ship in large 
quantities in one container, whereas the American system 
makes a practice of shipping in small packages which are 
then enclosed in a large case. Indeed, the American 
package does not differ for domestic or foreign ship- 
ments, except to the extent that in foreign shipments the 
cartons are enclosed in cases, and we understand that 
foreign shipments have recently also been made in car- 
tons. A large manufacturer and shipper of incandescent 
lamps, to whom the author is indebted for the cuts shown 



456 EXPORT PACKING 

with this article, sends the following information : " The 
best method of packing lamps for export shipment is, and 
has ever been, a very live subject with our engineers. 
Next to having a thoroughly satisfactory product to ex- 
port, the most important consideration in foreign busi- 
ness is properly packing the product. Consequently this 
is a subject to which we are giving constant and careful 
thought, with a corps of experts devoting their entire 
time to this one problem, and conducting hundreds of 
tests and experiments in their effort to discover and 
adopt the very best methods. 

" There are many factors entering into this problem, 
but generally speaking the two most important ones are : 
(1) Prevention of breakage. (2) Seducing size of pack- 
age to the lowest possible minimum. 

"Heretofore we have wrapped our lamps in what was 
known as a ' Champion ' wrapper, consisting of a flat sheet 
of single-faced corrugated paper to which was glued a 
fly-sheet of manila paper, slightly wider and longer than 
the corrugated paper sheet. The lamps were rolled up 
in this wrapper, the manila fly-sheet tucked in at the ends, 
and the so-called ' bread and butter' sizes of lamps — 
60 watt and smaller — were then tied in bundles of 25 with 
a piece of string. The standard method was then to 
place four of these bundles, or 100 lamps, in a corrugated 
paper package (although wooden boxes were used when 
necessary). A different size of corrugated paper pack- 
age was used for practically every different size lamp. 

"These facts are more or less familiar to every one 
who may read this article, but for purpose of comparison 
with the new method, it is well that they be mentioned 
here. 

"While this method of packing gave the lamps very 
good protection, there were certain features about it that 
were not the best, everything considered. For example : 

"(1) The so-called ' Champion ' wrapper was bulky, 
heavy, relatively expensive, and did not permit the lamps 
to nest. The last mentioned objection necessitated a rel- 
atively large package. 



EXPORT PACKING OF FRAGILE GOODS 457 

"(2) The tying of lamps in bundles with string was 
insecure. In removing the bundles from the package the 
string frequently came off, causing inconvenience, and 
possibly some breakage. 

" (3) The bundles of lamps being round, did not prop- 
erly fit the packages, which were square. This meant a 
great waste of space at the corners of the package. 

" (4) The use of the many sizes of packages had ob- 
vious disadvantages. 

' ' To discover a more satisfactory method of packing 
than that described above, eliminating the disadvantages 
of that method without sacrificing the protection to the 
lamp, has been our object, and with this end in view hun- 
dreds of tests have been conducted. We have been suc- 
cessful in developing a method that we consider vastly 
superior to the previous standard. Briefly, the new 
method is: 

"(1) The lamp is wrapped in what is known as a 
'Mid-ge' wrapper, consisting of a sheet of flat unfaced 
corrugated paper to which is attached a fly-sheet of Kraft 
tissue paper. Both the corrugated and fly-sheets are 
practically the same size as those in the ' Champion' 
wrapper, but in the ' Mid-ge' wrapper (a) They are 
lighter in weight; (b) Tlie new wrapper permits the 
lamps to nest, economizing space; (c) It is less expensive 
than the ' Champion. ' 

"(2) The ends of the 'Mid-ge' wrapper, being of 
Kraft tissue, are twisted, giving decidedly more protec- 
tion to the tips of the lamps than the 'Champion' wrap- 
per, whose fly-sheet was manila and could not be twisted, 
but had to be tucked in. 

"(3) The lamps, after being placed in the 'Mid-ge' 
wrapper, instead of being tied in bundles with string, are 
wrapped in Kraft paper, of which the ends are held 
together by gummed' paper tape, giving a neat, compact, 
secure bundle, conforming in shape with the box. Fig. 1 
illustrates very clearly the difference in general appear- 
ance and shape of the bundles of lamps in the Kraft 
paper and tied with a string. Fig. 2 shows how decidedly 



458 EXPORT PACKING 

better the paper bundle is adapted to the square paper 
package than the bundle tied with string, permitting a 
uniform distribution of excelsior and eliminating the 
wasteful corners. See page 454. 

■\ (4) The 'Mid-ge' wrapper permits the lamps to 
nest, as they naturally should. The advantage of this 
from a shipping standpoint is evidenced by the fact that 
30 S-19 bulb lamps in i Mid-ge ' wrappers can be packed in 
the same space as 25 in ' Champion' wrappers. Table No. 
1 shows some interesting comparisons of sizes of pack- 
ages required for the ' Mid-ge' and for the 'Champion' 
wrappers, with the saving in space effected with the 
former. 

" (5) By some changes in standard package quantities 
we have been able to reduce to a very low minimum the 
number of sizes of standard paper packages that will be 
used. Hereafter we will pack S-14, S-17, S-19, S-21, PS-17 
and PS-20 bulb lamps (possibly other sizes) in the same 
size package. There will be other similar consolidation of 
sizes. This has the following distinct advantages: (a) 
A reduction in weight and volume per thousand packed 
lamps, and a consequent saving in transportation charges 
and, in some cases, in duty charges, (b) A more flexible 
general warehouse stock, from a storage and a shipping 
standpoint, (c) The bundles of lamps will all be of prac- 
tically the same size, which means that shipments of less 
than standard package quantities from agents' and sub- 
companies' stocks, can be quickly and efficiently packed 
and handled by placing the compact paper bundles of 
several different sizes of lamps in the one size standard 
package designed especially to fit the lot. This is an 
obvious advantage, (d) Where crating is necessary, but 
one size of crate will be required. The table No. 1 con- 
tains some very interesting figures on the saving in 
volume per thousand packed lamps effected by this con- 
solidation of package sizes into one standard size. 

i i This saving in volume is shown in the drawing here- 
with (page 453). The new wrappers and paper pack- 
ages will retain their same advertising value and will be 




Courtesy of Willard Storage Battery Co. 
First Process in Packing Storage Batteries. 

Batteries are first placed in a light frame holding an average of five. For 
detailed description of the packing, see text. 




Courtesy of Willard Storage Battery Co. 
Shipping Case for Storage Batteries. 
The crate is placed in the shipping case and floated in excelsior. 

459 




Courtesy of Willard Storage Battery Co. 
Another Method of Packing Batteries. 

Batteries packed according to specifications of the United States War De- 
partment. Each battery placed in separate compartment and floated in excelsior. 




Courtesy of National X-Ray Reflector Co. 

Method of Packing Glass Eeflectors. 

Reflectors are packed in standard cardboard cartons, each reflector contained 
in its own compartment. Excelsior is packed into each compartment, and the 
cartons are floated in excelsior when put in case. 

460 



EXPORT PACKING OF FRAGILE GOODS 461 

marked with a description of the lamps as in the past. 
"In closing, it might be of interest to state that our 
engineers were fortunate enough to get the permission 
of the Department of Agriculture of the United States 
Government, to conduct many of their tests in a special 
box testing machine in its Forest Products Laboratory. 
These and many actual shipping tests have demonstrated 
conclusively the superiority of the 'Mid-ge' wrapper 
method of packing from a standpoint of protection to the 
lamps. Other advantages we have attempted to point 
out in this article. ' ' 

SAVING IN VOLUME BY NEW PACKING METHOD. TABLE NO. 1. 



Old Method (Champion Wrapper) 


New Method (Mid-ge Wrapper) 


Bulb 
Size 


Standard 
Package 
Quantity 


Outside 
Dimensions 
Standard 

Package 


Volume 

per 1000 

Lamps 


Standard 
Package 
Quantity 


Outside 
Dimensions 
Standard 

Package 


Volume 
per 1000 
Lamps 


Per Cent 
Reduction 
in Volume 

New over 
Old 


S-14 
S-17 
S-19 
S-21 
PS-17 


100 
100 
100 
100 
100 


14 xl4 x23 
16J£xl6Kx24 
17^x17^x27 
18^x183^x31 
16Jixl6Jix24 


26.09 cu.ft. 
36.68 cu.ft. 
47.85 cu.ft. 
61.39 cu.ft. 
36.68 cu.ft. 


250 
144 
120 
100 
144 


17H xl7^x27 
17J^xl7^x27 
173^x17^x27 
173^x17^x27 
17^x173^x27 


19.14 cu.ft. 
33.22 cu.ft. 
29.87 cu.ft. 
47.85 cu.ft. 
33.22 cu.ft, 


26.6 
9.43 
16.6 
22.0 
9.43 



South American importers have reported that Euro- 
pean manufacturers of electric lamps have usually 
packed in excelsior or straw, and have added pads of 
burlap on the exterior covers, with the intention of thus 
reducing the effect of shocks. This method of packing, 
however, is said to be gradually giving way to an imita- 
tion of the more modern American packing of lamps. 

The specifications for packing of the General Engi- 
neer Depot of the United States Army include the fol- 
lowing: " Incandescent lamp bulbs or lamp and lantern 
globes will be shipped in boxes of not over 25 cubic feet, 
all dimensions approximately the same. Two inches of 
excelsior will separate the contents from the inside of the 
boxing; a flat double-faced corrugated board will sepa- 
rate layers.- Incandescent lamps will be cased in corru- 
gated paper cylinders, and placed carefully so as to com- 
fortably fill the layer; excelsior will be used where 



462 EXPORT PACKING 

necessary for firm packing. Alternatively, well packed 
cartons will be boxed, and a space of two inches clear 
between cartons and box will be filled with excelsior or 
similar material. The excelsior will be in a compact and 
even bed, with no lumps." 

Packing of Sundry Electrical Supplies.— Export pack- 
ing of the electric storage battery, of the rubber cell type, 
presents an interesting problem, for we have here a com- 
modity that is fairly fragile and at the same time com- 
paratively heavy. The need, therefore, is for most care- 
ful protection against breakage and also for cases of 
sturdy construction that will guarantee safety to the con- 
tents under rough handling. 

A house that has developed an excellent export trade 
sends the photographs shown on pages 459 and 460 and 
comments on them as follows : " In photograph ' A ' you 
will find that the batteries are placed in a light frame 
holding on the average five batteries. You will note on 
the photograph that the batteries are separated from 
each other with corrugated paraffined cardboard, so as 
to minimize the jarring as much as possible. The card- 
board is also put lengthwise in the crate, as you can see 
one in the photograph tilted up, purposely projecting. 
The next crate in the same photograph shows the bat- 
teries placed in the crate with the cardboard tucked 
snugly around. The third crate shows two sheets of 
tough waterproof paper laid on top of the batteries, and 
as the fourth crate shows, a quantity of excelsior is 
placed on top and nailed down securely; thus you can 
see the batteries are firmly held in the crate, being in 
addition protected by the excelsior from rough handling. 
You will note on this picture that the crate has side 
boards extending a few inches, which serve as handles. 
The object of this you can see on referring to the second 
illustration 'B,' which shows the actual shipping case 
made of %" lumber. The handles on the crate serve for 
the packers to lift the crate with the batteries and place 
it in the packing case, on the bottom of which a quantity 
of excelsior has been placed; then the handles are sawed 



EXPORT PACKING OF FRAGILE GOODS 463 

off and excelsior is packed around with a paddle, as 
shown in the illustration where the man is just in the act 
of forcing this excelsior in between the sides of the case 
and the crate. After the excelsior has been well packed 
around, a quantity is put on top of the crate and the 
cover boards nailed down, after which the steel bands are 
fastened and the marking stenciled. We allow a space of 
about 2y 2 to 3 inches for the packing of the excelsior. 

"As we have received many favorable comments on 
this manner of packing, which has been adopted after 
many experiments and variations in our methods, we feel 
that this is the most satisfactory way of shipping bat- 
teries abroad. 

"The third photograph (page 460) might prove of 
interest also, as it shows the packing of batteries shipped 
under government specifications during the war. You 
can see from this picture that each battery is put into 
a separate compartment, there being ample roonrallowed 
for the packing of excelsior. These cases were made of 
1" lumber, reenforced with steel bands, and then painted 
across the corners in certain colors so that this would 
automatically determine for what branch of the army 
they were intended. The photograph shows these bat- 
teries ready for shipment. ' ' 

An American export house writes that one of its cus- 
tomers has complained of an instance where a manufac- 
turer shipped battery charges and storage battery plates 
in one case, divided by a partition which was supposed to 
be solid, but which became loosened, and in consequence 
some of the charges were broken. This customer believed 
that the two kinds of articles should have been packed 
separately. This exporter also directs attention to the 
necessity of always carefully insulating all electrical 
devices made of porcelain with some sort%of a cushion 
between the individual pieces which are quite fragile. 

An official report recently received from Cuba 
declares that it is bad policy to ship elaborate glass 
chandeliers demounted, or in any respect knocked down, 
because the lower expense involved in freight rates is 



464 EXPORT PACKING 

more than offset by the cost of erecting, because Cuban 
dealers are not equipped to produce fine results in com- 
plicated work of this description. Some simple chande- 
liers and fixtures may be shipped knocked down, when it 
is possible to assemble them easily in local Cuban estab- 
lishments. From China a complaint was recently received 
regarding a shipment of glassware for electrical fixtures 
sent out in cases made of y± lumber, with ends of %" 
stuff. Not only were the cases too light, but the lumber 
was of bad quality, and almost all of them arrived in 
broken condition. Indirect lighting bowls are often 
shipped three to a barrel, and although barrels arrived 
without apparent external damage, the contents are fre- 
quently broken, and importers believe it would be much 
safer to ship each bowl separately packed in a suitable 
case, with plenty of excelsior. 

A well-known manufacturer sends photographs shown 
on pages 460 and 465, and writes: "We are sending 
you with this letter two photographs showing the 
methods of packing that we employ in our factory for 
export shipments. This particular shipment is one that 
is going to London, and consists of glass reflectors used 
for illumination of store windows and interiors by means 
of indirect illumination. One photograph, as you will 
note (page 465), shows frve boxes all ready for shipment, 
with markings; the other photograph (page 460) shows 
box partly packed. You will note that the wooden box 
contains smaller cardboard cartons which are nested in 
excelsior. The method of packing the individual paste- 
board carton is illustrated in the lower left hand corner 
of the photograph. In this particular case the cardboard 
carton has four compartments, in which the individual 
reflectors are nested, between the cardboard partitions 
and layers. We believe that the photographs, with the 
following descriptive notes, will be of service : 

"As stated above, the individual reflectors are packed 
in standard cardboard cartons, with partitions and com- 
partments that hold the separate reflectors apart. This 
cardboard carton is the same as used for domestic ship* 




Courtesy of National X-Ray Reflector Co. 

Cases Containing Glass Eeflectors. 

Note the strips on ends and middle of sides which tend to take jar occasioned 
by rolling or tipping of cases. For detailed description see text. 




Courtesy of Eastman Kodak Co. 

Packing of Photographic Goods. 

Note the double ends of cases. The material packed is separated from the 
walls of the case, and each piece from every other piece, by thick layers of 
excelsior. This case contains glass graduates. 

465 




Courtesy of Eastman Kodak Co. 
Soldering a Tin Lining for Case. 
The tin lining provides an hermetically scaled package. 




Courtesy of Ceo. Borgfeldt & Co. 
Packing of Bric-a-Brac. 

Each article packed individually in paper and excelsior, placed in case in even 
layers, each layer covered by layer of excelsior. Note double ends of case reen- 
forced by strip of lumber at each end. 

466 



EXPORT PACKING OF FRAGILE GOODS 467 

ping. In order to further insure the reflector against 
chipping or abrasion, any spaces between the partitions 
and the reflector are filled up with excelsior, so that the 
reflector cannot move or shift in its position. This 
excelsior packing is not used in domestic transportation. 

"The large export boxes are made of 1" lumber, 
reenforced by 1" lumber on ends, and bound in the middle 
with 1" strips ; so that when the box is rolled or tipped 
over, these strips will tend to take the jar, instead of 
allowing the box to receive a flat slam, which is more or 
less injurious to the contents. You will note in the photo- 
graph that the wooden boxes are bound with heavy strap 
iron at each end. The wooden box is large enough to allow 
the standard cartons to be floated in excelsior padding. 
The boxes are made about 4" larger in each dimension 
than the actual dimensions of all of the cartons assem- 
bled. This space is very solidly filled with excelsior. It 
is our aim, in making shipments of this kind, to keep the 
size of the wooden boxes from becoming too large and 
heavy for convenient handling. We aim to keep to a 
dimension of not over 56" for any side of the box, and a 
weight of about 500 pounds. 

"The particular style of packing described and illus- 
trated by the photographs has been used successfully for 
shipments going to Holland, Sweden, England, Japan, 
Australia, etc. 

"As you already know, the outside of the boxes must 
be plainly marked to indicate the contents, especially if 
it is of fragile nature. It is our practice to place mark- 
ings not only in English, but also in the language of the 
country to which the shipment is to be made, such as 
Swedish, Dutch, Japanese, etc. The address or destina- 
tion is always given in the foreign language as well as in 
the American. This we consider a very important point. 
We feel that it is better to have more information than 
is required rather than hold up the shipment, which, in 
any case, requires a great deal of time. ,, 

A large maker of incandescent mantles, in a state- 
ment regarding his export packing, says that upright 



468 EXPORT PACKING 

mantles are first packed in cardboard tubes, then in 
cartons containing either 12 or 25, according to the 
requirements of the market to which they are being 
shipped. Cartons are packed with a liberal supply of 
excelsior completely surrounding them, in heavy cases 
lined with waterproof paper, and all cases are carefully 
strapped and cleated. 

Packing of Photographic Plates and Glassware.— 
What is probably the largest American concern engaged 
in the manufacture of photographic cameras and sup- 
plies, declares that it takes the greatest possible care at 
all times to ensure that its export packages shall be 
durable, and suitable for the transportation requirements 
of the countries to which they are shipped. Cases are 
usually of %" lumber, tin-lined, and hermetically sealed 
throughout (see cuts pages 465, 466). Heavy strapping 
surrounds the cases, and is always sealed. Wherever 
feasible, a standard case of from 12 to 16 cubic feet 
capacity is used. The lumber for this is mitred and 
nailed with special rosin nails. For the coast ports of 
Venezuela, cases of smaller and lighter construction 
(from 6 to 7 cubic feet) are used, in order to facilitate 
handling, and of course where muleback transportation 
is to be considered, as in Colombia, cases are made not 
to exceed 150 pounds in weight. Where there is liability 
of breakage, the material in cases is separated from the 
walls, and each piece from every other piece, by thick 
layers of excelsior. Furthermore, cases containing pho- 
tographic plates and chemicals in glass are limited in 
size to about 3% cubic feet, so that when sealed they will 
not weigh more than from 200 to 300 pounds. 

The specifications for packing issued by the General 
Engineer Depot of the United States Army included the 
following paragraph, which should be noted in this con- 
nection : ' ' Cameras and photographic supplies requiring 
such treatment should be hermetically sealed, either in 
an asphalt-treated cotton fabric — where necessary, 
asphalt or pitch sealed, lapping at least six inches — or in 
a waterproofed container approved by the Depot, taped 



EXPORT PACKING OF FRAGILE GOODS 469 

over the joints, and with a coat of China wood oil over 
these." 

Export Packing of Bric-a-brac and Fragile Sundries. 

— A large New York exporter, handling a great variety 
of bric-a-brac, and all kinds of fragile goods, provides 
us with a number of interesting photographs (see pages 
466, 556, 585), and states that export packing consists 
mainly in finding suitable cases, strong enough and 
roomy enough to contain the materials, snugly and tightly 
packed. All cases, except those to contain chinaware, 
are lined with waterproof paper, and each item is 
separately padded. The case itself is floored with ex- 
celsior, and the items are placed in and very tightly 
packed between layers of excelsior. The cases are reen- 
forced inside with a long piece of lumber nailed very 
tightly, so as to prevent the case collapsing in case a 
heavy load is placed on top of it. Cases are iron- 
strapped, pulled tight by machine and sealed. End 
straps are nailed into the case, but straps about the 
middle of a case are merely pulled very tight, and 
not nailed. All bric-a-brac is packed individually with 
paper and excelsior, laid in the cases in even layers, 
and thoroughly protected all around by excelsior. Each 
piece of bisque bric-a-brac is padded carefully to fill in 
the spaces between the parts of the ornament, wrapped 
in excelsior and paper, and large pieces are padded in 
layers. Bronze pieces of bric-a-brac are also padded, 
usually by bands of excelsior-wrapped paper. Cases em- 
ployed by this manufacturer frequently have double ends, 
and are also often reenforced by wooden battens at the 
ends. In a general way, the packing of these fragile 
articles of bric-a-brac may be described as thorough 
"floating" of the goods in their outside containers. 



CHAPTER XVII 
EXPORT PACKING OF TEXTILES AND APPAREL 

JOHN S. LAWRENCE recently stated that, "Four 
and a half years ago we studied our Federal tariffs 
and probable imports, today we look to our foreign 
markets and probable exports in anticipating our in- 
dustrial conditions. ****** ^he responsibility 
of caring for the world's needs has come to us through 
the misfortune of others, and with it we have undertaken 
a new obligation. The permanency of this business will 
depend upon the degree of i sane, sound service ' rendered 
by our United States industry in the next few years." 
The author does not know that it has ever been his good 
fortune to see expressed more concretely the interna- 
tional situation of any industrial branch. 

From 1890 to 1914 the United States consumed 31 to 
38 per cent of its own cotton crop, but the statistics for 
the war years show a very rapid increase of demand at 
home for the approximately 12,000,000 bales produced in 
the United States. In 1915-1916 we used 53 per cent of 
the domestic crop; in 1916-1917, 54 per cent; in 1917- 
1918, 58 per cent. This means that British spindles are 
being robbed of the raw material that has given England 
the lead in world trade for so many years, and it also ex- 
plains the very determined efforts that Great Britain is 
now making to foster cotton growing within her own 
domains and thus make herself independent of foreign 
countries in the matter of raw cotton supplies. 

The foregoing paragraphs will be of interest to any 
man interested in foreign trade in textiles, but it all has 
reference to the past and will be meaningless for the 
future unless the proper work is done to hold the ground 
won and by "sane, sound service" make a good fight 

470 



EXPORT PACKING OF TEXTILES 471 

for world markets. As an absolutely necessary element 
of this good service must be included good packing, and 
as a necessary element the packing problem demands the 
most careful and painstaking study. 

Packing of Textiles. — The packing of textiles offers a 
large variety of interesting technical angles. There is 
the question of customs requirements, which as applying 
to textiles are of the most exacting character. The ar- 
rangement of the goods in the case and the character of 
the case has a most important influence on the laid-down 
cost of the goods. There is further the protection of the 
goods, and above all, the necessity of doing everything 
possible to prevent pilfering. Textiles, unlike a great 
many goods, are merchandise of instant use in any coun- 
try, and there are comparatively few other lines that 
offer the universal and constant attraction to the pilferer. 

Textiles is, of course, a generally comprehensive term 
and applies not only to cotton piece goods but to silk, 
woolen and other goods in the piece, of which in recent 
years the United States has come to rank as an important 
exporter. It seems probably true that English shippers 
have brought to bear on the question of the export pack- 
ing of textiles a good deal more thorough and scientific 
study than we in the United States have up to the present 
bestowed on this subject. Indeed, the export packing of 
cotton textiles is, it is understood, a distinct branch of 
industry in Manchester, in which are engaged specialists 
devoting their attention to nothing else than the packing 
for export of the tremendous volume of export business 
enjoyed by Manchester and other British firms of ex- 
porters. Market peculiarities are quite thoroughly 
studied and generally understood, and the packing of tex- 
tiles by these Manchester specialists is said to follow 
more or less standardized lines — in the making of bales, 
for example. In many instances, double if not treble the 
hydraulic pressure is brought to bear in compressing the 
contents than is employed by American shippers, with the 
result that bales are made to occupy not to exceed two- 
thirds of the cubic space of an American bale containing 



472 EXPORT PACKING 

similar yardage. This perhaps is especially true in ship- 
ments of certain varieties of cotton piece goods to British 
India, where long established custom has developed the 
practice of compressing the several pieces into bales 
while still damp, and even soaked, with the sizing liquids 
employed, utilizing very heavy hydraulic pressure, with 
the result that when the bales are opened in India each 
piece is as stiff as a board and the folds of the cloth have 
almost to be torn in unwrapping the pieces. Practices 
such as this vary with different markets and, of course, 
have to be learned with the course of long and intimate 
acquaintance with market peculiarities and the wishes of 
customers. It is notable, however, that British packers 
invariably charge for the special packing supplied, while 
the usual practice of most American shippers is to supply 
packing without cost. There is, or at least used to be 
before the war, a more or less standard packing price-list 
in vogue among the Manchester packing houses, and 
charges for packing of various descriptions — bales, cases, 
tin linings, etc. — as made by British shippers were widely 
understood and accepted. Whether it might be better 
for American shippers to go deeply into this subject of 
the export packing of textiles and impose charges for 
packing which would deliver goods to the better satisfac- 
tion of customers, or with considerably reduced freight 
charges, may be a subject for discussion. The volume of 
American export business has become so tremendous 
that economies offered customers for their better satis- 
faction in one way or another have become matters of 
the highest importance to us. 

Use of Cases and Bales. — As illustrating American 
packing methods at present in vogue among shippers 
doing a very large export business, the following quota- 
tions from correspondence which has been received will 
be of value. 

A house doing an international business writes: 
"Cases. — For countries where case packing is permis- 
sible, we use %-inch new cases, line these inside with 
good heavy paper and protect the outside by iron strap- 



EXPORT PACKING OF TEXTILES 473 

ping. The number of straps varies according to the size 
and weight of cases, but it is hardly ever less than three. 
To ports in which unloading is difficult, in other words, 
where steamers cannot dock at piers, but must stay out- 
side and the cargo has to be unloaded into lighters, we 
usually employ waterproof paper as a lining in order to 
avoid damage in case a parcel is dropped into the sea in 
the unloading process. Cases going to countries with a 
very humid climate are tin lined. This tin lining is also 
employed for shipments to certain Far Eastern markets 
where merchandise in cases has frequently been damaged 
by a class of vermin eating into it. We employ tin lining 
entirely on all shipments to Korea. 

" Bales. — Packing in bales is demanded by customers 
for two reasons. The first reason is that duty is assessed 
on the gross weight, and for that reason naturally the 
customer wants to have his tare as light as possible in 
order to keep down the amount of duty he has to pay. 
In this case, we make bales as large as we can possibly, 
make them consistent with their safe arrival. We em- 
ploy a large power press to compress bales, then wrap 
the entire parcel in strong paper, over which goes a layer 
of oilcloth and outside burlap. The outside is then pro- 
vided with not less than four iron straps. To avoid 
damage to the merchandise we put under the layer of bur- 
lap a light board of exactly the length of the bale. This 
board at the same -time prevents cutting of the strapping 
into the merchandise. 

"The second reason for packing in bales is that cer- 
tain markets do not have railroad connections with the 
ports, and merchandise has to be transported on mule- 
back. In that case a certain weight must not be exceeded. 
The weight given by various merchants as a limit 
varies — but we have found that for the interior markets 
of South America such as Colombia, Bolivia, etc., to 
cities without railroad connections, the customary limit 
given is about 50 kilos. The make-up of these bales is 
the same as in case one." 

Another large textile exporting concern sends a num- 



474 EXPORT PACKING 

ber of excellent photographs (see cuts pages 479 and 480) 
and states that the ordinary baled goods are lined with 
heavy manila paper and covered with burlap. For mule- 
back transportation and better grades of goods, the bales 
are lined with paper, oilcloth and burlap, and in certain 
cases tarpaulin is used. The cases are all of new wood 
and are wire strapped, as in practice this house believes 
it has been demonstrated that the wire strap is better 
than iron straps. The captions of the photographs in 
question are self-explanatory. 

Packing of Wool or Hair.— Of value to shippers of 
other textiles than those of cotton will be the following 
excerpt from the Standard Specifications of the War De-' 
partment for the shipment overseas of army supplies 
during the war. 

" Boxes containing articles with components of wool 
or hair shall have a liberal amount of naphthaline (not 
less than one-half pound per box) sprinkled evenly 
throughout the contents. Naphthaline must be furnished 
in flaked or crushed form. Particles must be large enough 
so that they will not adhere excessively to the cloth or 
material when it is shaken. The product must be white 
and must not turn brown after exposure to the air for a 
period of time. On ignition it shall be completely con- 
sumed, leaving no residue. It must be completely soluble 
in boiling alcohol. The solidification point shall be 79.5 
degrees C Material having a solidification point less 
than 79 degrees C. will be rejected. 

. "When necessary, a lining of moth-proof paper shall 
be used in addition to the naphthaline, and it shall be 
placed between the waterproof paper and bogus paper 
linings. This moth-proof paper shall contain either a 
coal tar, naphthaline oil, or red cedar oil saturant, and 
shall be paper with a strong odor. When its use is con- 
sidered necessary it will be specified.' ' 

Criticism of Textile Packing.— Many criticisms of 
American packing of textiles which have been received 
from correspondents and importers in other markets of 
the world will assist in shedding light on what we do 



EXPORT PACKING OF TEXTILES 475 

that we ought not to do and what we do not do that 
we ought to do. Strenuous complaints have been re- 
ceived from Manila of the continual arrival at that 
port of goods whose consignees cannot be identified 
because of the mutilation or destruction of their 
frail containers. We have before us a photograph which 
illustrates what was originally a bale of white goods 
packed in jute with metal bands. This bale with many 
others was sold by the customs authorities in Manila be- 
cause it was impossible to identify it, having arrived 
entirely stripped of its covering and bands. 

Importers of American cotton drills in Ceylon say 
that when these goods arrive by direct steamer they are 
in fairly good condition, but when transhipment has been 
necessary the coverings of the bales are torn and almost 
all bales are open at the ends. Complaint is made that 
the pieces of cloth on the bottom of the bales which come 
in contact with the floor for a time are found to be spotted 
and damaged. This is attributed to the insufficiency of 
the wrapper. 

Complaints from the Far East. — Experienced import- 
ers of American textiles in China report that such 
piece goods as sheetings and drills are frequently 
shipped with merely a sheet of packing paper and at 
most two wrappings of a very poor quality of burlap. 
Colored goods are shipped in wooden cases, mostly of 
very common wood, with merely a brown paper lin- 
ing, consequently the merchandise more often than not 
arrives at destination in pretty bad shape. European 
manufacturers ship gray goods, or what are known in 
America as brown cottons, in bales, the wrapping of 
which consists of a heavy packing paper, a waterproof 
lining paper, tarred canvas and a good quality of burlap 
covering, while colored goods are invariably shipped in 
tin-lined cases. It is probable that there have been more 
claims for damage on cotton goods than upon all other 
kinds of American goods shipped to the Far East. The 
packing of American domestics is criticized as too lightly 
pressed, while the wrappers consist of a single paper 



476 EXPORT PACKING 

(generally very thin) and gunny covers bound with rope 
bands, and, when sent in double bales, the bales are 
usually trussed with thin steel bands of about % inch by 
No. 24 gauge. The wrappers are inadequate to prevent 
damage by liquids. In comparison with American bales, 
the English goods are heavily pressed and the wrappers 
consist of three layers of stout paper, prepared canvas, 
layer of brown paper, and outer wrapper of gunny, 
bound with steel bands of 1% inches by No. 13 gauge. 
This packing renders the contents secure against small 
liquid damage, and it is difficult for hooks to penetrate 
past it. 

The most serious damage by steel bands is due to their 
becoming twisted because of the small gauge of steel, 
with the result that the edge, which is knife-like, may 
easily cut other bales while in stowage. This damage is 
fairly common and is accounted for by the swelling of 
the contents of the bales which overlap the edges of the 
bands. A very common damage is that caused by oil 
stains. Some damage is due to the bales coming in con- 
tact with wheels and axles of cars when loaded, or it may 
be from coming in contact with the winch or the winch 
chains on board ship. Paper lining of bales is absolutely 
useless in preventing the oil from penetrating to the 
contents, and in many instances the packing paper is of 
an absorbent nature and actually accelerates the damage. 
The effect of the damage to gray goods is that dye will 
not take where the oil has touched. If the wrappings of 
bales do not extend all around them, covering all sides, 
or are broken open because the rope bands have disap- 
peared, damage ensues from mildew and dirt stains. 

At Shanghai the practice prevails of stripping the 
ropes and hoops from bales of piece goods stored in go- 
downs or loaded on the coasting steamers. These "im- 
pertinences" to bales have formed a regular source of 
revenue to certain classes of Chinese employees. 

From Bombay it is reported that American drills are 
not sufficiently protected by their packing from cuts and 
tears. American packing consists of a Hessian cloth and 






EXPORT PACKING OF TEXTILES 477 

some paper, whereas the usual packing of English piece 
goods consists of Hessian cloth on the outside, then a 
tarpaulin and a thick gunny, with paper inside. English 
bales are also larger, heavier and more compactly pressed 
than are the American bales of drills. 

Of drills shipped in cases, importers on the east coast 
of Africa complain that American packing only consists 
of a layer of paper, and that the boxes themselves are too 
light for their weight, which ranges from 250 to 300 
pounds. Unbleached sheetings from the United States 
are shipped in bales wrapped in gunny, secured by ropes, 
9 to 13 ropes to a bale; inside there is a wrapping of 
paper, and the ends of the bales are loosely sewed. The 
foreign bales, usually containing kanikis and kangas 
(women's garments), which are generally packed in 
gunny, are secured by iron bands, and the ends are very 
carefully and closely sewed ; moreover, there is an inside 
lining of waterproof paper. In many of the English 
bales there is a thin wooden piece set at each end, giving 
greater rigidity to the bales and decreasing the danger 
of damage should the ends become torn. 

Emphasis is laid on the necessity for good end sewing, 
for it is generally at the extremities that American bales 
come open. The chief weakness of the American bale is 
the end sewing; the rope ties seem adequate, though not 
so good as the iron; but the inside casing of waterproof 
paper is badly needed. If an iron tie is used, the water- 
proof inner coating is essential to protect the cottons 
from rust. 

English Method of Baling. — All cotton goods are im- 
ported into Honduras in bales to save cost. The English 
charge 4 shillings for packing a 60-kilo bale, but they 
pack it much tighter than the Americans, so that their 
bales are not over two-thirds the size of those from the 
United States containing the same quantity of goods. 
This not only gives an advantage in freight rate but is 
also a protection to the goods under the rough handling 
they receive in their trip to the interior. The English 
interline with tarred burlap and bale with ties, while the 



478 EXPORT PACKING 

American exporters interline with oilcloth and bale with 
ropes. The ties are preferred, as ropes are occasionally 
cut en route. The merchants state that if thick enough, 
oilcloth is all right, but that frequently it is* too thin or 
is old stuff that has holes in it and does not protect the 
goods. For good oilcloth the merchants are able to get a 
little additional, but they cannot do this if it has pre- 
viously been worn out in the United States. During the 
rainy season goods are brought up country in ox carts or 
by muleback in the heavy rain, and if the marks and 
numbers are not heavily stenciled they are illegible by 
the time the goods arrive in the interior. 

All cotton goods shipped to Salvador come in bales. 
American bales are wrapped in paper and oilcloth, some- 
times only in brown paper around which is put the outer 
burlap. The English first use paper, then ordinary bur- 
lap, then tarred burlap and then the outer burlap, which 
makes the bale almost watertight. 

Most of the cotton goods for Bolivia comes in bales 
weighing under 100 pounds, or at least under 125 pounds. 
Frequently several small bales are strapped up in one 
bale for import to the towns and then divided for ship- 
ment to the interior. 

Indicative of the restraints that packing requirements 
have imposed, it may be noted that the preference in 
Colombia for piece goods 26 to 28 inches in width had its 
origin in the custom of making bales of cloth for mule- 
back packing 26 to 28 inches long so as to prevent the 
iron strapping of the package from chafing the thighs 
of the animal. Furthermore, prints and dress goods are 
put up in bolts containing either 10 or 30 yards, the 
former quantity being sufficient to complete the garment 
desired by the purchaser, and the latter for the retail- 
counter trade. 

All of the houses in Maracaibo, Venezuela, which im- 
port dry goods, complain against the use of hooks on 
bales of cotton piece goods. They assert that eight out 
of every ten bales contain damaged pieces of cloth with 
holes cut by the bale hooks. One house states that its 




Courtesy of M. C. D. Borden & Son. 
Baling of Textiles. 
Bale is in position and is about to be placed under pressure. 




Courtesy of M. C. D. Borden & Son. 
Bale Under Pressure. 

Bale shown in this photograph is under a pressure of 2,000 lbs. per square 
inch. Burlap is being sewed on all sides. 

479 




Courtesy of M. C. D. Borden & Son. 
Strapping of Bale. 
Iron straps being tightened. 




Courtesy of Peck & Hills. 
Wicker Chairs Eeady for Packing. 
Pile of knocked down chairs, ready to be measured for crate or case. 

480 






EXPORT PACKING OF TEXTILES 481 

individual damage from this cause amounts to over $200 
every year. In shipping white goods, prints, etc., oil- 
cloth or burlap should be interposed between the paper 
and the outer burlap. In shipping gray goods, however, 
this is not thought necessary by these importers and is 
always omitted by Americans, as it saves in first cost 
and duty. 

From Buenos Aires it was not long ago reported that 
buyers of supplies for local shoe factories complained of 
the American practice of shipping textiles for shoe linings 
in cases instead of in bales. A long correspondence was 
necessary before the manufacturers in the United States 
could be made to understand that the contents of 20 
wooden cases might be packed into 16 cases if the pieces 
were heavily compressed, while identically the same 
yardage might be shipped in only 8 bales, effecting a very 
important saving in freight rates. 

Book Cloths. — A large exporter writes: "On large 
export shipments of book cloth the ordinary wooden case 
used measures 39"x20"x20" inside, and contains about 
twenty-five rolls of book cloth, approximately sixty yards 
to the roll. This case, outside measure, has a displace- 
ment of 9 7/10 cubic feet. 

"Special cases of all sizes are made on smaller ship- 
ments — cases holding from one or two to twenty-five rolls 
each. Each case is double and sometimes triple lined 
with a good quality of heavy waterproof paper; is se- 
curely fastened by the use of nails and strapped about 
with heavy iron straps. Each individual roll of cloth is 
wrapped nearly the full length in paper, but this is done 
for domestic as well as export shipping. " 

Packing of Knit Goods, Hosiery, etc. — A prominent 
manufacturer of hosiery says in a letter to the author: 
"First. We pack our merchandise as is desired by our 
customers. In countries where import duty is paid on 
gross weight, naturally they require shipment in bales, 
and in that case each dozen of hosiery is first wrapped 
in white, grease-proof paper, and then bundles of about 
25 dozen are wrapped in waterproof paper, and possibly 



482 EXPORT PACKING 

four or six or eight bundles placed together, forming a 
bale, which is again made waterproof, then covered with 
1-inch mesh chicken wire, after which the bale is thor- 
oughly covered with burlap. This chicken wire is for the 
prevention of theft, and we have found it very effective. 

" Second. In other countries where duty is not paid 
on gross weight, but when ocean freight is paid on a basis 
of cubic measurements, we again wrap each dozen in 
white grease-proof paper, packing same in a seaworthy 
case, lined with waterproof paper to prevent damage 
from moisture. This is the method generally employed 
in most South American countries. 

"To Europe generally, however, regular packing is 
required. By that we mean each dozen of our cotton num- 
bers are put in boxes of one dozen, silk numbers being 
in boxes of one-half dozen. These boxes or cartons are 
then packed in a seaworthy case thoroughly lined with 
waterproof paper. In every instance, however, the sea- 
going cases are specially built for each individual order 
and are of %-inch soft wood with double heads, and any 
case of 30 inches in length or over is reenforced on all 
four sides with battens, and in every instance is bound 
with iron strapping. 

"In the case of parcel post shipments, generally each 
dozen is wrapped in white grease-proof paper, and then 
built into a package of the proper size, so as to remain 
within the limits of gross weight, and thoroughly covered 
with waterproof paper. In some countries, however, 
Cuba particularly, our regular boxing is employed, and 
then built into a package to remain within the limits of 
gross weight, thoroughly covered with waterproof 
paper. ' ' 

A large exporter of silk and cotton gloves, silk hose, 
silk underwear and cotton-ribbed underwear, writes : 

"We build a new case for every shipment and accord- 
ing to the necessities of each shipment ; we use no stand- 
ardized case, but they are all built of new %-inch lumber 
(white pine) and strongly strapped with heavy metal 
strapping and, in the case of silk goods going to South 



EXPORT PACKING OF TEXTILES 483 

Africa, tin-lined besides. We have rarely had complaints 
of goods arriving in bad condition, although we have had 
many cases of goods pilfered en route even from tin-lined 
cases. We do not charge for ordinary export cases, but 
tin lining is charged at cost. 

"As stated before, we have no standard size case, but 
build each of a size to suit the particular lot that is to go 
out, and thus the customer never has to pay freight on a 
lot of wasted space, for, of course, all our goods go by 
cubic measurement and not by weight. 

"Unless the article to be shipped is of an unvarying 
standard size, standard shipping cases should be avoided, 
as it so often means that the consignee has to pay for 
several cubic feet of excelsior or old paper. 

i i Great care should be taken in ascertaining the exact 
net, legal and gross weights of each case, and where dif- 
ferent classes of merchandise are packed in the same case 
the net and legal weights of each grade of goods should 
be shown; in fact, many merchants ask that the net and 
legal weights of each style in the consignment be shown, 
as it greatly assists them in figuring their costs. Too 
much stress cannot be laid on the necessity of exact 
accuracy in weighing goods, as in most countries duties 
are collected on the net or legal weight, and a wrongful 
declaration means a heavy fine for the consignee, which 
he naturally will expect to be reimbursed for by the 
shipper, and unless the shipper is willing to lose a cus- 
tomer he will have to pay it. 

"Cases should be marked plainly, a stencil should in- 
variably be used ; some countries demand it ; and no ad- 
vertising matter should be shown. Customers ' instruc- 
tions as to marking and numbering should be strictly 
followed. Net, legal and gross weights in pounds and 
kilos to be stenciled in, as also measurements. 

"When shipping to points where there are adequate 
port facilities dry goods should be packed in as large a 
case as possible consistent with strength and as long as 
it is not too heavy. For instance, we have shipped knit 
underwear (cotton) to Norway in cases 49" x 37" x 34", 



484 



EXPORT PACKING 



containing 127 dozen garments, gross weight 445 pounds 
or 201.85 kilos. 

" Great care should be taken in ascertaining the 
methods of calculating duties in the country the shipment 
is going to. Where duties are based on net weights, 
goods such as hose, gloves, etc., can be shipped in cartons ; 
where duties are charged on legal weights, all cartons, 
labels, etc., have to be omitted and the goods packed in 
bulk, each dozen wrapped in tissue paper and each six 
or twelve dozen so wrapped, again wrapped in strong 
but very light paper. Where tin lining is not used, the 




-CASE END BATTEN, MITRED. JOINTS 

Courtesy of Bech, Van Siclen & Co., Inc. 



case should be lined with good waterproof paper, but care 
should be taken that this paper does not contain too much 
tar, as this is liable to sweat going through the tropics, 
and if the contents are dry goods will stain the goods. 
We had a case of this the other day and have changed 
our waterproofing papers. " 

A New York export merchant suggests that bales con- 
taining small articles of wearing apparel, dry goods, 
hosiery, etc., should always be strapped both ways, and 
that in shipping to some countries it is even advisable to 
line the bales with poultry netting as a protection against 
pilfering. This merchant believes that all bales should 
be lined with oilcloth, which he regards as the greatest 
protection against oil and water stains. 



EXPORT PACKING OF TEXTILES 485 

Shipping of Textiles. — Another large export mer- 
chant, shipping chiefly textiles, sends copies of packing 
instructions sent to mills with which export orders are 
placed, which may be commended to the most careful 
study of the reader. This house submits a typical dia- 
gram of the shipping case desired (see cut, page 484), the 
instructions reading as follows : 

"The following instructions apply to shipments of 
silk hosiery and similarly valuable commodities where 
values of shipments are so great as to warrant the most 
expensive waterproof and pilfer-proof packing as the 
best economy. 

Packing Instructions — Cases — Style 1 

"(Not to be used if contents ' weight exceeds 500 
pounds or cubic measurement exceeds 27 feet, when pack- 
ing must conform to our instructions Style 4.) 

"Make of new wood not less than % inch in thickness. 
Waterproof, line with tar-coated paper and strap with 
strong 20/22 gauge hoop iron, one inch wide bands, to be 
tightly drawn and sealed about ends, nailing with 3" nails 
placed every four inches. Use band %" in width with 
signode seal applied about middle. 

Packing Instructions — Cases — Style 2 

"(Not to be used if contents' weight exceeds 500 
pounds or cubic measurement exceeds 27 feet, when pack- 
ing must conform to our instructions Style 4.) 

"Make of new wood not less than % inch in thickness. 
Waterproof, line with table oil cloth and strap with 
strong 20/22 gauge hoop iron one inch wide bands, to be 
tightly drawn and sealed about ends, nailing with 3" nails 
placed every four inches. Use band %" in width with 
signode seal applied about middle. 

Packing Instructions — Cases — Style 3 

"(Not to be used if contents weight exceeds 500 
pounds or cubic measurement exceeds 27 feet, when pack- 
ing must conform to our instructions Style 4.) 

"Make of new wood not less than % inch in thickness. 
Line cases with tin and hermetically seal, and strap with 
strong 20/22 gauge hoop iron one inch wide bands, to be 



486 EXPORT PACKING 

tightly drawn and sealed about ends, nailing with 3" 
nails placed every four inches. Use band %" in width 
with signode seal applied about middle. 

Packing Instructions — Cases — Style 4-1 

1 i Special for unusually large cases or where weight is 
excessive. 

"Make of new wood not less than 1 inch in thickness, 
with 6" wide by 1" thick end battens nailed to case ends, 
properly and closely fitted to give strong support for 
side board end nailing. 

"These battens to have mitred and not straight joints 
to prevent the case from opening up because of swaying 
side motion in a sea-roll. 

"Waterproof line with tar-coated paper and strap 
with strong 20/22 gauge hoop iron one inch wide bands, 
to be tightly drawn and sealed about ends, nailing with 
3" nails placed every four inches. Use two bands %" in 
width with signode seals, and apply evenly spaced about 
middle. 

Packing Instructions — Cases — Style 4-2 

' ' Special for unusually large cases or where weight is 
excessive. 

"Make of new wood not less than 1 inch in thickness, 
with 6" wide by 1" thick end battens nailed to case ends, 
properly and closely fitted to give strong support for 
side board end nailing. 

"These battens to have mitred and not straight joints 
to prevent the case from opening up because of swaying 
side motion in a sea-roll. 

"Waterproof line with table oilcloth and strap with 
strong 20/22 gauge hoop iron one inch wide bands, to be 
tightly drawn and sealed about ends, nailing with 3" nails 
placed every four inches. Use two bands %" in width 
with signode seals and apply evenly spaced about middle. 
Packing Instructions — Cases — Style 4-3 

"Special for unusually large cases or where weight is 
excessive. 

"Make of new wood not less than 1 inch in thickness, 
with 6" wide by 1" thick end battens nailed to case ends, 



EXPORT PACKING OF TEXTILES 487 

properly and closely fitted to give strong support for 
side b.oard end nailing. 

" These battens to have mitred and not straight joints 
to prevent the case from opening up because of swaying 
side motion in a sea-roll. 

"Line cases with tin and hermetically seal, and strap 
with strong 20/22 gauge hoop iron one inch wide bands, 
to be tightly drawn and sealed about ends, nailing with 
3" nails placed every four inches. Use two bands %" in 
width with signocle seals and apply evenly spaced about 
middle. 

Packing Instructions — Bales — Style 1 

"Waterproof with tar-lined paper, strap with strong 
iron bands and use signode sealing. Bales to be hydraulic 
pressed. 

Packing Instkuctions — Bales — Style 2. 

"Waterproof with table oilcloth, strap with strong 
iron bands and use signode sealing. Bales to be hydraulic 
pressed. 

Packing Instkuctions — Bales — Style 3 

"Waterproof with double table oilcloth and tarpaulin. 
Strap with strong iron bands and use signode sealing. 
Bales to be hydraulic pressed. 

"Markings for all cases and bales of every descrip- 
tion : Stencil all bales with markings as per order copy in 
letters or numbers not less than 2y 2 inches high. Mark 
on both ends. Mark also with gross, legal and net weight 
in kilos (if possible). Also mark with cubic measure- 
ment of each bale or case." 

This house further comments : ' ' We anticipate your 
criticizing us for leaving off side battens of wood under 
strap iron bands from our case specifications. We are 
doing this for three reasons : 

"First. — The heavy gauge strap iron nailed with 3" 
nails we believe to be equally protecting. 

"Second. — The American mills' domestic cases are 
not battened. Therefore, the use of battens would pre- 
sent a difficulty for them to adjust themselves to with 
readiness. 



488 EXPORT PACKING 

" Third and last reason is that these battens use up 
additional ship space, causing* an added freight cost any- 
where from 50 cents to $2.50 a case that seems to us a 
waste not compensated for by the added protection. 

' • The mills of this country are now showing a very 
accommodating spirit regarding packing exactly as the 
export trade desires. There is no contrary spirit to con- 
tend with today, whatever may have been the past con- 
dition. The extra cost of export packing will be charged 
for." 



CHAPTER XVIII 
PACKING FURNITURE 

EXPORTS in 1919 of American metal and wood fur- 
niture were some $7,819,025, as compared with 
$5,349,320 in 1918, and whereas the growth is 
considerable, it could well have been produced by those 
conditions which have brought about expansion in the 
foreign trade in general of the United States. Therefore, 
there is no reason to explain the situation by alleging 
superior merchandise or increased interest on the part 
of shippers. The writer believes, however, that Ameri- 
can trade in steel and wood furniture has a very large 
" spread" that it has not yet covered, and certainly the 
business in office furniture could be very materially in- 
creased with adequate attention to the work, and deter- 
mination to build up foreign sales. 

In the furniture trade abroad there are a great many 
competitive considerations that the American exporter 
has to face. There is the question of style, which varies 
greatly in different countries and which frequently is 
influenced by many factors; local factors, such as those 
present in different South American countries, and for- 
eign influences, like that of France, in many parts of the 
world. In addition there is local production which must 
be taken into account, for woodworking is one of the 
oldest trades, and skilled men are found in almost every 
country. To be sure this latter consideration does not 
apply, in many countries, to steel furniture, as this is an 
industry of comparatively recent development and re- 
quires both equipment and special training for its 
development. 

Faulty Packing Practice. — However, it would seem 
that the American manufacturer has to contend abroad 

489 



490 EXPORT PACKING 

chiefly with his own bad packing, and from many dif- 
ferent quarters unfavorable testimony on this point is 
available. Characteristic of this testimony are certain 
statements in Harold E. Everley's report on the ''Furni- 
ture Markets of Chile, Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador,' ' re- 
cently published by the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic 
Commerce, in which stress is laid upon the paramount 
necessity of good packing in foreign shipments of furni- 
ture. Speaking of Chile, Mr. Everley writes: "One of 
the requirements of the furniture trade with Chile is 
better packing. American export packing must be greatly 
improved. Aside from firms that specialize in certain 
lines and have studied carefully the requirements of for- 
eign packing, American manufacturers, generally speak- 
ing, have improved very little in their methods during 
the past two or three years. This is probably due in some 
respects to the trying conditions caused by the war. One 
thing American exporters should bear in mind is that 
goods are probably handled more roughly on the West 
Coast of South America than anywhere else in the world, 
Some of the officials supervising the unloading of the 
ships, as well as most of the workmen, seem to take very 
little interest in the way cargoes are handled, and as a 
result there are endless breakages and consequently much 
loss from pilfering. 

' ' The common criticisms of American packing are that 
the cases are too light, the lumber used is too brittle and 
splinters very easily, nails are not of sufficient length to 
hold securely, and there are usually no strap-girdles 
around boxes to keep them from bulging open or coming 
entirely apart. It has been suggested by the manager 
of the shipping department of one of the most important 
steamship lines that cases of goods to be shipped to the 
west coast countries of South America, should be tested 
to withstand a dead drop of at least ten feet before they 
are allowed to leave the packing rooms of the factory. 
While this seems to be a severe test, it is not nearly so 
severe as the treatment they are likely to receive before 
reaching their destination. 




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491 




Courtesy of S. Karpen & Bros. 
Packing op Bed. 

Seat of bed is placed in oil-paper lined crate. Layers of waterproof paper 
placed between each part. 




Courtesy of S. Karpen & Bros. 
Bed Being Placed in Crate. 
Back of bed placed in case on top of seat. 

492 



PACKING FURNITURE 493 

' ' Extra strong cases or crates must be used to with- 
stand the numerous operations of handling. Damage 
often results during hoisting by tackles. The sides of 
cases sometimes collapse when the slings become taut, 
causing the tackle to give way and the package to fall a 
long distance into the hold of the vessel or onto the 
lighter, or not infrequently into the sea. The contents 
of a case should be securely fastened within to prevent 
moving about, and proper reinforcements of the. weak 
parts of the exterior covering should be made. 

"A proper method of marking a case should be used. 
The numbers of the cases, destination of the goods and 
name or mark of the importer should be stenciled on 
with good paint in figures and letters at least 2y 2 " to 3" 
in height. There should be a discontinuance of the prac- 
tice of covering boxes with English advertisements, 
which are generally burnt into the wood while the really 
important information is carelessly marked on with a 
brush and inferior ink — the letters being often so small as 
to be almost or completely obliterated before the case 
reaches its destination. This condition does not obtain 
in the case of goods from Europe ; very little if any adver- 
tising is used, while the names, numbers and addresses 
are properly marked, easily read and withstand a great 
amount of rough handling. The matter of marking cases 
is something that American exporters should seriously 
consider in order to avoid trouble." 

Manufacturing Furniture for Export. — Before any 
furniture can be properly packed for export, attention 
should have been paid to the manufacturing with this 
special end in view. Furniture must never be packed until 
the varnished surfaces are thoroughly dry and hard. 
Many complaints have been received of wrapping paper 
used to surround furniture surfaces and excelsior used 
for protection having stuck to varnish not thoroughly 
hard, with the result that when the articles arrived at 
points of destination they had to be scraped, re- varnished 
and re-finished before they were in salable or even usable 
condition. 



494 EXPORT PACKING 

Several phases of the activities of the Forest Products 
Laboratory at Madison, Wisconsin, have a bearing on 
the problems of shipping furniture overseas. According 
to "Technical Notes," published by the Laboratory: 
' ' These cover the conditioning or preparation of the wood 
to suit the climate to which the furniture will be sent, the 
use of waterproof glues, kiln drying, boxing and crating 
for overseas shipments, and possible treatments to pre- 
vent depreciations of wood-destroying insects. While 
information is at hand on general principles, the applica- 
tion of these principles to the needs of the furniture in- 
dustry has never been studied, and cannot be undertaken 
without the cooperation of manufacturers. 

"In general, it can be stated that furniture manufac- 
tured in the north central states will check and open up 
when sent to desert regions, and that its wood will swell, 
the glue joints open up, and the veneering come off when 
it is sent to tropical, humid regions. Exact knowledge of 
the climatic conditions surrounding the use of the furni- 
ture at its destination, and a reproduction of these con- 
ditions in the factory through the control of humidity in 
work rooms, should offer the successful solution of this 
problem. This would be coupled with consideration of 
drying the lumber to the proper moisture content, and 
shipment in moisture-proof packages to insure delivery 
in good condition. 

"Furniture as well as other wood products used in 
the tropics is subjected to the attack of insects known as 
termites. This attack is excessive in South America in 
the coastal regions north of Rio de Janeiro, and is so cer- 
tain and so severe that, in the opinion of the Forest 
Products Laboratory, it is undesirable to export wooden 
furniture to those regions unless the wood used is 
naturally resistant to termites or is treated with a poison 
which will prevent the attack of these insects, such as 
mercuric chloride." 

The Forest Products Laboratory has recently been 
conducting several courses for the benefit of manufac- 
turers, dealing with kiln drying and the handling of glues 



PACKING FURNITURE 495 

and ply-wood. Twenty-one different manufacturers sent 
representatives to the second course given in this line, 
and it is understood that similar courses are to be con- 
tinued and elaborated. 

Observations of Export Merchants. — Furniture is, of 
course, one of the most difficult products to pack properly, 
and several letters on this subject have been received 
from export merchants who have had experience in ex- 
porting this line. A New York export merchant dealing 
largely with the Levant calls attention to the fact that 
few iron bedsteads are shipped from the United States 
despite the fact that the English, notably the Birming- 
ham manufacturers of such bedsteads, have a tremendous 
trade not only in the Levant but in all parts of the world. 
This merchant states that the difficulty with American 
metal bedsteads is not that prices are too high, or is not 
even essentially the fact that styles and methods of manu- 
facture are somewhat different from the English, but the 
main objection to the use of American metal bedsteads 
lies in the packing for export to which American manu- 
facturers have seemed to pay little attention. Ordinarily 
American goods in this line are shipped one bedstead 
in each case, which often measures in excess of 20 cubic 
feet. English and other European manufacturers wrap 
all the flat pieces with suitable paper. The side bars are 
laid flat, protected with straw rope and straw laid loose, 
and either bundled or crated, or several complete bed- 
steads are packed in a crate or case which when complete 
measures considerably less than a ton. The development 
of American exports in this line is believed by this mer- 
chant to depend chiefly, if not solely, on the improvement 
in our export packing to gain cubic space and bring the 
resulting delivery costs down to the level of similar goods 
of European competing manufacturers. 

The same merchant writes in regard to the packing of 
knocked down furniture, that very frequently such ship- 
ments are not properly marked and arranged, containing 
no packing lists, which ought to be placed inside each 
case, and that the different pieces are not properly num- 



496 EXPORT PACKING 

bered so as to indicate the exact position which that 
piece is to occupy and facilitate the putting together of 
the entire article. It would be better to enclose a blue 
print or a photograph with each piece of knocked down 
furniture to show to the customers exactly how that piece 
of furniture appears when set up. 

A prominent house exporting to South Africa states 
that the invariable rule ought to be that all furniture 
should be so packed that the cases or crates may be turned 
upside down and transported in any position. The great 
thing to guard against is the danger of varnished surfaces 
rubbing against the cases or crates. Another point made 
by this merchant is that knobs and handles, some. decora- 
tive carvings, etc., are frequently broken off and keys are 
frequently missing. All handles, knobs and keys should 
be taken off and packed in a separate box securely tied to 
or preferably, in some manner, attached to some part 
of the piece of furniture where the separate box can 
readily be found. 

Objection is also made to the way in which some 
American manufacturers ship ^bureaus and dressers and 
the mirrors which go with them. It appears that manu- 
facturers more frequently than not simply cover the 
mirror with paper and crate it, with the natural conse- 
quence that a great many of them are broken on arrival. 
This export merchant advocates following the English 
practice of packing each mirror in a separate box thor- 
oughly cushioned with excelsior, and enclosing that box, 
which in turn should be properly protected, inside the 
box containing the other pieces of the furniture in ques- 
tion. (See also explanation of "floating" in chapter on 
the packing of glass and fragile goods.) Attention is 
also directed to the fact that some kinds of furniture 
which permit of very close boxing, such, for example, 
as refrigerators, not infrequently suffer from careless 
nailing of the outside cases, the nails being driven into 
the furniture contents instead of into the inside ends or 
braces of the case where they properly belong. 

Another export merchant, dealing with certain trop- 




Courtesy of S. Karpen & Bros. 

Packing of Bed and Box Coqch. 

Illustration at left shows method of packing bed. Two ends are placed on 
top of back. Note excelsior pads which prevent rubbing of parts. Illustration 
at right shows box couch wrapped and firmly held case. 




Courtesy of The Century Co. 

Transporting Piano in South America. 

Illustration shows that pianos do not always travel in vans and should be 
packed accordingly. 

497 




Courtesy of Geo. Borgfeldt d Co. 
Crated Floor Lamp. 
To fit lamp closely crate is tapered. Shades are packed separately. 




Courtesy of Victor Talking Machine Co. 
Packing of Phonograph Records. 

Photograph shows single record in envelope, corrugated board box containing 
25 records, boxes placed in case and closed case. (Series 1.) 

498 



PACKING FURNITURE 499 

ical countries of South America, points out that the glue 
used in some American furniture is either not of the right 
quality or is improperly used, because sometimes pieces 
of furniture fall apart under the influence of the tropics. 
This merchant urges that furniture for the tropics should 
be fastened with screws, and if glue is ever used it should 
be supplementary to the screws and most carefully and 
scientifically employed. 

Where lightness is desirable in shipments, as to cer- 
tain countries where duties are assessed on the basis of 
gross weights, all furniture should, whenever possible, be 
shipped knocked down, thoroughly protected from the 
danger of abrasion by the use of thick beds of excelsior, 
then wrapped in burlap and finally very lightly but solidly 
crated. Extreme care should be exercised that no drops 
or other misusage of shipping packages can cause spring- 
ing or breaking of the contents. 

Reduction in Cubic Space Necessary. — One of the mis- 
takes in export shipping to which furniture manufac- 
turers seem particularly prone is the disregard of the 
widely known and constantly emphasized fact, that ocean 
freight rates on such comparatively light commodities 
as furniture are charged, not on the weight of the pack- 
ages, but on their cubic measurement. The economizing 
of the cubic measurement of each case containing furni- 
ture, even if only by a few cubic inches, means a corre- 
sponding decrease in the cost of the goods to the foreign 
customer. Complaints are constantly being received 
from buyers of the disregard of specific and repeated 
packing instructions given to manufacturers, which have 
entailed the loss of a good deal of money because of the 
excessive freights paid on account of unnecessarily large 
packing or the neglect to include small packages in the 
otherwise vacant spaces in larger cases. An example is 
given of a shipment to the Argentine Republic of sec- 
tional book cases, card index boxes, etc. These were all 
shipped separately, whereas the small card index boxes 
might easily have been packed in the empty spaces inside 
the bases of the sectional book cases. A good many cubic 



500 EXPORT PACKING 

feet of space which had to be paid for at high freight 
rates were wasted in shipments of this description. In 
another case a manufacturer failed to nest metal cash 
boxes as he ought to have nested them, one within an- 
other. Each one was packed separately, and the result- 
ing freight charges were two or three times what they 
ought to have been. 

From many letters received from manufacturers of 
various kinds of furniture detailing their experiences, 
practices and policies in export shipping, the following 
excerpts may be chosen as likely to be of interest and 
value. 

General Household Furniture. — One of the largest 
firms specializing in shipping furniture for export sub- 
mits a number of photographs illustrating its practices 
in export packing which are reproduced on pages 480 and 
491, and writes in this connection : ' i This company makes 
its own cases and crates for export shipments. These are 
built of one-inch lumber, usually of North Carolina pine, 
but birch or gumwood is sometimes used. Lumber is 
dressed on both sides so that it is about %" after planing. 
Both cases and crates are lock-cornered — that is, they are 
so built that all the nails go into the edges of the boards 
instead of some going into the ends of the boards. In 
this way boards are prevented from splitting or working 
loose, and the cleating used by some companies to accom- 
plish the same end is made unnecessary. Coated nails 
are used throughout, as these do not easily pull out. 
Cases are strapped all around the edges with %" straps 
of high-grade metal. 

"When furniture is packed in cases a bed of picked 
excelsior about one inch or more thick, placed between 
layers of kraft paper, is put into the case on at least two 
sides. When needed, as in cases of bedroom, dining room, 
living room, or office furniture, braces of wood about an 
inch thick are nailed to the case across the bottom of the 
article that is being packed, and also across the front in 
order to hold it firmly against the padding of excelsior 
at the back and top. Two braces are usually used across 



PACKING FURNITURE 501 

the front, one across the bottom, and other braces may be 
used where needed, according to the nature of the ship- 
ment. Often the ends of the braces are screwed into the 
sides of the case, and nailed to cleats above and below to 
prevent splitting*. The general purpose of bracing is to 
keep the article from shifting, hold it firmly against the 
resilient bed of excelsior, and protect it from breakage 
by lifting it away from the sides of the case, so that even 
if the case should be injured the furniture may still be 
safe. 

"All cases are lined with kraft or oiled paper or tar- 
paulin, depending upon the country to which they are 
going. If goods are to go by muleback at the last stage 
of the journey, waterproof paper or tarpaulin is used, 
so that they may be removed from the case before loading 
onto the animal's back and still be protected from injury 
by rain or other causes. 

"If furniture is packed tight enough in a case or 
crate it is not necessary to use braces, but braces are 
always used unless the goods fit perfectly. The lumber 
used in all of the packages shown in the accompanying 
photographs is 4/4 North Carolina pine, birch or gum- 
wood. Crates as well as cases are always iron strapped 
with bands of from %" to 1" wide, nailed with cement- 
coated nails. The only exception to this rule with us is 
in a few shipments to the West Indies where it is believed 
iron strapping is not required." 

Another large shipper of furniture gives the follow- 
ing details referring to his export packing. "Furniture 
should be knocked down as much as possible before pack- 
ing. Then it is wrapped, usually in heavy wrapping 
paper, and excelsior pads are placed here and there 
around the edges, if necessary, to prevent rubbing. The 
furniture is then boxed, preferably in a strong case which 
has battens all around the edges. If the furniture is 
irregular in shape, braces are used, that is, strips of 
wood three inches or so wide are nailed across and close 
above parts of the furniture from one side of the case to 
the other, in order to keep the article from shifting. For 



502 EXPORT PACKING 

example, a divan might have a brace across the seat and 
another across the back. By careful bracing it is some- 
times possible to pack more than one article in the same 
case. 

" Cases should be used where goods are going a long 
distance, and as an extra precaution, oiled paper lining 
is sometimes used inside to prevent moisture from pene- 
trating. The ordinary casing is made of lumber 1" frame 
and %" rilling. The wood is planed on both sides — the 
inside so that it will not scratch the furniture, the outside 
because it makes a smoother surface for marking. The 
cases should be strapped with iron strapping from %" 
to 1" wide, according to the size of the case. These straps 
are nailed all around the edges of the case. When furni- 
ture is shipped overland by muleback it may be packed 
either in bales or cases, depending on whether duty is 
paid by gross weight or not. It is also sometimes neces- 
sary to use tarpaulin in order to protect the goods from 
rain storms. Sometimes oiled paper is used inside in- 
stead of, or in addition to, the tarpaulin. 

"When furniture contains glass, special care is, of 
course, necessary. As a rule, glass should have two strips 
of paper in the form of an X pasted from corner to cor- 
ner. When glass is packed separately, the best method 
is as follows : If more than one layer of glass is to go in 
the case, paper is laid between them, and excelsior is 
stuffed between the glass and the sides of the case. This 
case is then put inside another case, which is rilled with 
excelsior. (See chapter on the packing of glass.) 

"To nearby countries crates are frequently used in- 
stead of cases. The crates are made of lumber with 1" 
frame and %" to %" filling, the boards of the crating 
being from four to six inches apart. The furniture is 
braced, just as when packed in cases, and the crates 
should be iron strapped in the same way. Wicker furni- 
ture, being less breakable than other kinds, is generally 
packed in crates, unless it can be completely knocked 
down, in which case the parts may be baled or boxed. 

"Baling is done with burlap and excelsior, the burlap 




Courtesy of Victor Talking Machine (Jo. 

Method of Packing Small Phonographs. 

Victrola and outfit box are wrapped together in paper and tied. Layer of 
four machines placed in case tightly embedded in excelsior. Note additional 
batten placed around the middle of closed case. (Series 2.) 




Courtesy of Victor Talking Machine Co. 

Medium Sized Phonograph Placed in Case. 

Needle box, sample needles and sound box tacked to motor board, turn tables 
and winding key separately wrapped. The victrola in waxed paper tightly em- 
bedded in case with excelsior. Packing case firmly strapped. (Series 3.) 

503 




Courtesy of Victor Talking Machine Co. 
Packing of Large Type Phonograph. 

Instrument after locking and wrapping of taper tube is placed on skid. Note 
that cleats do not rest on machine owing to use of corks. Machine is firmly 
held in case by screws driven through the sides into skids. (Series k-) 





Courtesy of Remington Typewriter Co. 
Method of Packing Typewriter. 

Machine is firmly attached to case cover by means of a cradle and is placed 
in case upside down. Empty cradle shown. Note that lettering on case is 
inverted, in packing; the case is turned bottom side up and typewriter cradle 
attached to bottom cover of case. 

504 



PACKING FURNITURE 505 

being laid out, spread with excelsior to a depth of five 
or six inches or more, according to the article that is to 
be packed, then brought up over the furniture and sewed 
tightly. Baling is advisable only for very nearby coun- 
tries, or when the article can be completely knocked down 
or is so inexpensive that the price of casing would be dis- 
proportionate to its value, and where duties are paid by 
weight. ' ' 

Packing of Office Furniture. — A large manufacturer 
of office furniture has developed what he believes is 
adequate and satisfactory export packing. This manu- 
facturer writes : "When it is considered that merchandise 
that is destined for foreign lands undergoes in a great 
many instances the roughest possible handling, there 
should be no wonder that we give the matter of packing 
for export our very careful study. 

"Both wood and steel cabinets as well as desks are 
first carefully wrapped in either oiled paper or kraft 
paper (an absolutely waterproof paper). Boxing is then 
prepared allowing a good distance all around the cabinet 
for packing with excelsior. The casing is then built up 
as rigid and strong as possible ; the ends of each box are 
reinforced and all stock is %"• 

"On the average sized cases we use two iron bands, 
but when the boxes are extra large, three bands are used. 
These bands are the strongest protection we know of and 
are drawn up exceptionally tight by means of clamps, 
both ends being held with automatic fasteners. 

"The cases are very carefully marked with the net 
and gross weights on the outside, and in cases where 
goods are to be forwarded through New York forwarding 
houses, the foreign address is covered by a small board, 
which is lightly nailed to the case, and bears the address 
of the forwarder. ' 9 

Another house doing a large business in furniture 
made of steel and wood sends drawings of its export 
packages (see page 509) and states that in the construc- 
tion of its crates, "We use elm and hemlock lumber 1" 
and 1%" thick fastened with 8-penny and 10-penny nails. 



506 EXPORT PACKING 

The cabinets are wrapped with double thickness of gray 
express paper before being put into the crates and padded 
with 6" excelsior pads on corners and wherever necessary 
to prevent contact between crate and cabinet. 

1 'In crating, a bottom frame is built and the cabinet 
is then placed on this frame ; then the top frame is built 
and placed on top of the cabinet, resting on the excelsior 
pads mentioned above. The sides are then nailed on the 
crate, after which braces are put on, also 6" metal boxing 
strips. The diagonal braces are used to prevent racking 
of the cabinet when it is handled by derricks or hoists in 
and out of the ship. This is practically unnecessary on 
anything but export shipments, as this method of han- 
dling is confined almost exclusively to export shipments." 

A large shipper of office desks declares in a letter that 
the greatest requirement in export shipping is that boxes 
be rigid and not subject to distortion and consequent 
injury to the contents. "We reenforce top and bottom of 
our cases with two cross pieces and use tight boxes of 
13/16" chestnut matched lumber. We use sufficient quan- 
tities of" paper and excelsior to keep all surfaces of the 
desks away from the boards of the cases. The great 
point, however, is that the cases be rigid.' ' 

Upholstered Furniture. — A prominent New York 
house which has shipped a great deal of expensive 
upholstered furniture to various export markets sends 
photographs, which are reproduced on pages 492 and 497, 
and a letter stating that packages are generally made up 
in accordance with customers ' specifications. This house 
believes that, in general, a crate is as satisfactory for 
overseas shipments as a case, and.its customers, many of 
whom are in South American countries, frequently 
specify crates in order to save weight. The wood used 
is 1" pine. The crates are lined with oiled paper and 
layers of the same are placed between each part of each 
article. Heavy pads of excelsior are used between each 
part of each piece of furniture to prevent rubbing, and 
the pads are also used to protect against abrasion with 
outside case. A general idea of the packing supplied by 



PACKING FURNITURE 507 

this house will be further gathered from the photographs 
to which reference is made. 

Export Packing of Pianos. — The man whose ideas of 
piano transportation are limited to the padded vans one 
sees in the city streets, and who has noted the extreme 
care with which these costly instruments are carried from 
van to house and finally placed in the music room or 
drawing room, need only look at the illustration on page 
497, made from a photograph taken by Mr. Harry A. 
Franck 1 , that accompanies this text, to realize that he has 
only seen part of the travels of the piano. This photo- 
graph is really a commentary on any export package and 
should be studied and remembered by anyone interested 
in the pilgrimage of foreign shipments. 

The name of the factory manufacturing the piano 
illustrated by Mr. Franck we do not know, but we hope 
that this factory had some idea of transportation in 
South America and of the severity of the mountain voy- 
age of a once sweet-toned instrument. For, if the factory 
did not know and if it packed this piano without knowl- 
edge of the elements entering into the problem, it 
requires no imagination to picture the disappointment of 
the owner and his feeling toward American-made goods. 
The man who first of all makes a considerable expendi- 
ture for a piano, then performs the task of having it 
brought to some West Coast port, and then gets together 
the small army that is going to carry that piano into the 
fastnesses of the mountains, is thirsty for the delights 
of haitoiony, and if he does not get them, but in place 
receives a mass of swollen felts and rusted wires, his 
feelings are going to be quite intense. 

The manufacture of the piano, like that of most 
musical instruments, has been brought to a state of 
excellence in the United States that permits world-wide 
competition with the instruments manufactured in 
Europe, and in the case of pianos one American manu- 
facturer has the honor of having his instruments selected 

Reproduced from ' ( Vagabonding Down the Andes," by permission of 
The Century Co. 



508 EXPORT PACKING 

the world over for their excellence and high standard. 

A well known manufacturer described verbally to the 
writer his method of export packing as follows : The 
export package does not differ from the domestic pack- 
age except that the export package is tin lined and her- 
metically sealed. In both packages the piano rests on 
strips of wood which float it as if it were in the middle of 
the case, the piano being securely fastened to the wood 
strips. These strips in turn are wedged so that there is 
no possibility of their slipping, the whole making a rigid, 
solid export package. 

A compartment is provided for the legs and lyre, 
and the piano is placed in the case or removed by 
lifting it in a horizontal position. The package is so 
designed as to provide a minimum of labor in unpacking. 
The manufacturer states that: " These packages have 
been successfully transported to all parts of the world 
and are the result of many years' careful study of the 
requirements of export." 

Another manufacturer of pianos writes that his boxes 
are made of lumber 1" thick with three battens 4 inches 
wide carried around the entire box, the corners being 
fastened with iron angles. There are two additional 
4:"xiy 2 " battens at each end on the back of the box 
which is iron-strapped all around. The interior packing 
involves the use of two padded strips, one at each end 
between the end of the piano and the box, and a padded 
stretcher running the entire length of the box against 
the side below the key-bed. This is fastened with a cleat. 
In addition there are two corner posts 2"x2" screwed 
through the end and front of the box and extending from 
the key-bottom downward to the bottom of the box. 

A third piano manufacturer sends a letter stating that 
the bottoms of his export cases are reenforced by skids 
running the full length; there are inside cleats and an 
extra cleat running around outside of the box in the 
middle. All cases are lined inside with waterproof paper 
and nailed with 10-penny cement-coated nails. Instead 
of four lag screws usually employed, one in each 




Courtesy of Hamilton Mfg. Co. 
Crate for Printer's Imposing Table. 
Notice solid construction of crate and diagonal bracing. 




Courtesy of Hamilton Mfg. Co. 
Crate for Printer's Cabinets. 

exceMor'pa^ WrttPP€d WUh d0uUe ™ckneas of paper and padded with 6' 



509 




Courtesy of National Cash Register Co. 
Packing of Cash Register. 
Machine and accessories ready to be placed in case. 




Courtesy of National Cash Register Co. 
Method of Fastening Cash Register in Case. 

Machine is covered with waterproof cloth. Braces are placed to remove 
pressure from front of case. 

510 



PACKING FURNITURE 511 

corner, this manufacturer uses eight screws 4 1 / £"x%", 
two in each corner, passing through the back of the box 
into the back of the piano. 

It is to be noted in this connection that foreign 
importers of American pianos have sometimes com- 
plained that as cases containing pianos, as well as other 
commodities, are often turned upside down in handling, 
if only two lag screw bolts are used the pianos frequently 
break away and are seriously damaged. The greatest 
possible care ought to be taken in securing and in other- 
wise thoroughly bracing pianos within export boxes. 

Packing of Billiard Tables. — A large company" manu- 
facturing billiard tables which has exported its products 
for many years writes in regard to its export packing as 
follows: "The bed of every billiard table consists of 
three slabs of slate of equal size usually from 1" to IV2" 
thick. We pack these slabs of slate two in one case and 
one in another, unless they are thicker than 1%" and 
then each slab is placed in a separate case. Three inches 
of excelsior are laid on the bottom of the case, on top of 
that the slate, followed by three inches more of excelsior 
on top. When two slate slabs are packed in one case 
they are laid face to face on top of each other. Three 
inches of excelsior are also stuffed between the edges of 
the slabs and the sides of the box so that they are thor- 
oughly protected all around. We use extra heavy cases of 
2" lumber screwed together. In addition to the two cases 
in which the slate bed is packed, two more cases are 
required for each billiard table. The tables are shipped 
knocked down, one case containing the two ends, each 
with two legs attached. The two ends are placed on top 
of each other -with the two pairs of legs in opposite 
directions, forming a hollow square which fits tight into 
the case; the second case contains the broad-rails, cush- 
ion rails, cues and remainder of the equipment. " 

Floor Lamps. — A large New York exporter of novel- 
ties and specialties sends the excellent photograph (see 
page 498) illustrating packing of a floor lamp about 
six feet in height. It is to be noted that the lamp is 



512 EXPORT PACKING 

padded with excelsior and paper and that a closely fitting 
crate tapering at the top is made especially to fit it. If 
more than one lamp is to be forwarded in a single ship- 
ment, from two to fonr may be packed in a crate, alter- 
nate lamps being packed reversed, the top of one tied to 
the foot of its neighbor. The lamp shades are packed sep- 
arately in cardboard boxes suitably crated. 

Talking Machines. — Among the American industries 
that have made unusual progress in export the talking 
machine manufacturers are notable, for throughout the 
world the excellence of the American made machine is 
recognized and this, together with the unusual repertoire 
offered, places the product in a distinguished position. 

The packing of this instrument offers a number of 
angles that are also characteristic of other lines described 
in this book. We have first the necessity of protecting 
the fine cabinetwork of the talking machine for, with ma- 
chines valued at times at several hundred dollars each, 
it is paramount that the merchandise be received without 
blemish, and in addition to the usual requirements of 
careful protection from friction and abrasion we have 
the necessity for complete protection against moisture. 

In describing its export packing a company doing a 
large international business submits a number of highly 
interesting photographs, shown on pages 498, 503 and 
504, with captions briefly describing each style of packing 
which may be more adequately explained as follows : In 
Series No. 1 the corrugated board boxes each containing 
25 records are wrapped in kraf t paper and. finally in 
waxed paper, the flaps sealed with sealing tape, making 
each package practically moisture proof. The packing 
case itself is lined with a waxed paper, divided near the 
center with a wood head nailed through the side of the 
box; in each end of the case are placed several pieces of 
corrugated board and any empty space remaining, be- 
cause of the varying thickness of different records, which 
makes it impossible to supply cases which will exactly 
fit, is filled with a second inside wood head and excelsior 
stuffing. The case itself is made of %" yellow pine lum- 



PACKING FURNITURE 513 

ber tongued and grooved, the ends fully battened with 
%"x2y 2 " strips and the case is iron strapped all around. 

In the illustration of packing Series No. 2, it is to be 
noted that above the first layer of machines are cleats to 
hold the instruments solidly. This case is made of the 
same size lumber as that just previously described, but 
it is to be noted that there is an additional batten around 
the middle of the case to prevent spreading. In packing 
Series No. 3, a case with sides, bottom and top of %", 
yellow pine tongued and grooved is employed, the ends 
being made of %" yellow pine fully battened with 
%"x2y 2 " strips. 

Packing Series No. 4 presents several very interesting 
features which are deserving of notice by exporters of 
all kinds of furniture. It will be noted that the motor, 
turn-table, etc., of this machine are packed in a separate 
corrugated board box which is placed in the open space 
underneath the machine between the legs. It is then to 
be noted that the instrument itself is mounted on a sub- 
stantial skid to prevent the legs touching the bottom of 
the case. Cleats are used which completely surround the 
machine at the top but are prevented from touching the 
machine by corks inserted in the cleats. These corks are 
coated with paraffin to prevent damage to the finish of 
the machine by rubbing and friction. The lid is held 
tightly in place by two clamps fastened to the guard rails 
surrounding the top of the instrument, and the whole 
upper cleated structure is fastened to the skid on which 
the machine rests by means of two strips down the sides. 
It should be observed that none of this cleating actually 
touches the finish of the machine. It is used to prevent 
the instrument coming in contact with the packing case. 
The latter is built of five-ply veneer with a total thickness 
of approximately y 2 ", making it to all intents and pur- 
poses puncture proof. The resulting box is fully bat- 
tened with %"x2" strips. On the top of the case a tri- 
angular piece of lumber is nailed and strapped on in the 
effort to prevent the turning upside down of the instru- 
ment. The machine is held firmly in place in the case by 



514 EXPORT PACKING 

means of screws driven through the sides of the box into 
the sides of the skid which supports the machine. The 
upper part of the cleated structure is not fastened to the 
packing case, thus allowing the instrument to move 
slightly and be relieved from much of the shock should 
the box be roughly handled. 

Export Packing of Typewriters. — The typewriter is 
a peculiarly American invention and is one of that great 
category of labor-saving devices that characterize the 
development of American business. With a simple ma- 
chine to merchandise and one with an enormous potential 
consumer demand throughout the entire world, the type- 
writer companies were early in the foreign field, and sev- 
eral of them have developed an export package of excel- 
lent value from the standpoint of portability and security. 

We illustrate this chapter with a photograph (see 
page 504) of the export package of a well known company 
and it is to be noted that in this case the typewriter is 
attached to the bottom of the case. When the box is 
upright the typewriter is resting on the floor of the 
case, and this method of packing also greatly facilitates 
the opening of the case and the removal of the machine. 
Describing this package, our correspondent writes us: 
' i Typewriters for export shipment are packed in strong 
wooden boxes. These boxes are made of %" material 
and the four sides are mortised together. Grooves are 
cut in two opposite sides of the box providing a hold by 
means of which the box is readily handled. In the case 
of Russian shipments, however, rope handles are also 
provided on two opposite sides of the box. The cover of 
the box is provided on the outside with two hardwood 
strips 2"x%", to which the machine is securely fastened. 
Two other hardwood strips l"x%" are placed across the 
top near the sides to further strengthen it. 

1 ' When the machine is received in the packing depart- 
ment, all nickel plated parts and others not protected by 
a rust proof finish are given a coat of grease to prevent 
rusting. All moving parts are then tied securely in place 
by means of W' white tape. Twelve such ties are made. 




Courtesy of National Cash Register Co. 
Final Packing of Cash Eegister. 
Open space filled with excelsior; top is fastened by means of screws. 




Courtesy of National Cash Register Co. 
Completed Case Containing Cash Eegister. 
Note iron straps placed on bottom and rear of case. 

515 




516 



PACKING FURNITURE 517 

A cardboard type bar retainer, oiled to prevent rust, is 
then forced in position to hold the bars in place. A box 
cover is then obtained by the packer and turned upside 
down on his bench. This cover has previously had 
attached to it, by bolts and washers through the hard- 
wood strips, two springs made of V/o" wide steel and 
about y 8 " thick. These springs are 13" wide. A base 
board of hardwood is placed in position on these springs 
and the typewriter with wooden feet inserted is placed in 
position on the base board. Holes are provided in the 
base board into which the feet fit. A wooden saddle or 
packing piece, cut to the proper shape, is next placed 
across the front and one across the back of the top plate. 
The wood packing piece across the front is prevented 
from marring the enamel by means of 'packing buttons.' 
These buttons are a concave piece of metal, circular in 
shape, and are provided with a small key or feather 
which projects from the convex side. This key fits into 
the slot of the top plate screw and holds the wood away 
from contact with the enamel. The rear packing piece 
is prevented from marring the enamel by means of small 
pieces of felt placed between the wood and the top plate. 
These packing pieces are tied to the spring beneath the 
base board by means of a steel tie rod at each end. These 
are tightened up by means of a nut. The front and rear 
saddles are tied together by means of a metal strip at 
each side of the typewriter. Thus we see that the ma- 
chine is now securely fastened to the springs attached to 
the under side of the box cover. 

"The whole machine is now completely wrapped in 
a heavy oiled paper. Over this paper is placed the metal 
cover for the typewriter and this is fastened in place on 
the base board of the machine. On the inside of the box 
are fastened by means of white tape, the accessory box, 
ribbon and instructions. The box cover is next inverted 
over the box and dropped into place, thus placing the 
machine inside of the box. The cover is fastened in place 
w T ith screw nails so that it may readily be removed with 
the aid of a screw driver, ' ' 



518 EXPORT PACKING 

Packing of Cash Registers. — Cash registers may be 
fairly classed among that very unique group of export 
goods known as "American specialties. ,, This class of 
commodities frequently enjoys a world-wide market and 
they are recognized everywhere as a product essentially 
of American genius and enterprise. Certain of these 
lines, like the cash register, are inventions of relatively 
very recent date and yet the development of the machine 
itself and the development of the world market have been 
little short of phenomenal. At first the cash register was 
a simple piece of mechanism and it was designed to serve 
a single purpose, but the latest machines are capable of 
most complex operations in bookkeeping and accounting. 

American specialties have consistently sought the for- 
eign market, and in the case of the best known manufac- 
turer of cash registers the normal export shipments 
amount to more than 60,000 machines a year and the for- 
eign business is taken care of by an army of salesmen and 
agencies. The story that could be written of these spe- 
cialties would make a most interesting account of export 
expansion, and indicates what the right sort of effort can 
do when backed by the proper merchandise and selling 
ability. 

The illustrations on pages 510, 515 and 516 have 
been supplied by a well known manufacturer and 
deserve study with their explanatory captions. It may 
be noted that the packing cases employed are made of 1" 
maple and are supplied to the packing department com- 
plete with cleats and braces in position. The machine 
is protected with waterproof cloth and the base covered 
with heavy cardboard; open spaces are filled with ex- 
celsior. The lids are screwed on, greatly facilitating the 
removal of machines from cases and leaving cases intact 
so that customers may use them for other purposes if 
desired. Attention should be drawn to the iron straps 
on bottom and rear of case. These are the points toward 
which the weight is thrown and are therefore strapped. 
This company does not regard straps as necessary on 
other parts of the case, 



CHAPTER XIX 
PACKING OF TINNED GOODS 

THEORETICALLY the packing of fluids in cans 
would seem to be an ideal condition with which to 
deal, for here we have containers of a shape that 
admits of standard cases and the containers themselves 
are far from fragile. However, the packing of goods of 
this sort, to obtain the best results, is by no means simple, 
and, like every other problem of export packing, the 
work requires study and experimentation. 

A good many things may happen to canned goods that 
are not well packed and protected. Poorly nailed cases 
mean punctured containers, weak crates or boxes mean 
as a rule that the customer is not going to receive his 
goods, and it is astonishing what can happen to a case of 
canned goods when the cans are not protected against 
crushing strains that may in turn be due to a variety of 
causes. 

Commodities packed in tins are almost innumerable 
in variety, including not only liquids and pastes, but also 
powders and solids. Commonest among such shipments 
are to be noted paints, tinned fruits and vegetables, fish 
and meats, biscuit, pharmaceutical products, oils, etc. It 
is found necessary to pack many commodities in tins for 
export purposes, when pasteboard or wood cartons are 
ample for domestic shipment. This occurs both because 
of additional protection required for such commodities 
in transport overseas, and because of the perishable 
nature of some commodities in more trying climates than 
our own. Cereals and biscuit must be packed in tin to 
prevent spoiling by tropical moisture, and to guard 
against the entrance of worms and weevils. If these com- 
modities, dried fruit, or other provisions of a perishable 
nature, are not packed in tin, they rapidly become rancid, 

519 



520 EXPORT PACKING 

decayed or moldy in many countries to which they are 
shipped ; they may be affected by long salt water voyages 
or by the long dry or wet seasons which prevail in tropical 
and semi-tropical countries, ranging from Central and 
South America to India, Africa and Southern China. 

One feature of the export packing of tinned goods 
which should receive more adequate attention than here- 
tofore has been the case, is the waste of space, or exces- 
sive sizes of packages, and consequent heavy freight 
charges, involved in the shipment of round tins when 
square tins holding the same quantities might be packed ; 
square tins mean reduction of cubic measurements and 
consequently smaller export packages. This point is 
brought out in a letter from a large export house shipping 
chiefly to Japan, which points to the considerable loss of 
money which has occurred during the last three or four 
years when freight rates have ruled exorbitantly high 
as compared with rates before the war. Square contain^ 
ers, this firm believes, are far more satisfactory than are 
round tins, although comparatively few manufacturers 
or shippers appear as yet to have recognized their im- 
portant advantages. It would seem that there need be 
no insuperable obstacles in the way of any large manu- 
facturer securing square tins at comparatively econom- 
ical costs, and any shipper doing a large volume of export 
business might rapidly forge to the front, as a leading 
supplier of his particular merchandise, through the ver^ 
large economies he would be able to show to his cus- 
tomers in other parts of the world by reducing the cubic 
measurements of his export cases. 

In connection with the subject matter of this chapter, 
the following specifications, issued by the General En- 
gineer Depot of the United States Army, may be noted : 
"When tin containers for oils, paints and liquids are used 
they shall be of heavy sheets, well made, rectangular in 
shape, hermetically sealed, and securely packed in boxes 
or crates, with wood partitions between the containers. 
Containers will not exceed 5 gallons in capacity. Pack 
two 5-gallon containers in one box or crate." 



PACKING OF TINNED GOODS 521 

Export Packing of Paints.— American manufacturers 
of paints were careful during the war to take advantage, 
so far as their national obligation permitted, of the 
export opportunity offered them, and it is believed that 
much of the gain made is going to be held. Several con- 
cerns will not lose their foreign trade if care and careful 
planning can preserve it, and these concerns, without 
exception, are making sure that their goods arrive in 
satisfactory shape at destination. 

A well-known manufacturing concern which has 
shipped its products overseas for many years past sends 
several photographs (shown on pages 523, 524), and com- 
ments on its policy and practice in packing for export 
as follows: " Paint is packed in cylindrical tin cans. 
Gallons and half-gallons are packed in ream-top cans, 
which are sealed thus : a thin, round piece of tin is laid 
over the top of the can, the edge of the tin projecting 
about 14" beyond the edge of the can. The can is then 
spun rapidly around by means of a machine with wheels, 
which press against the projecting edge of tin, turning 
the edge over on itself twice in a double seam, and jam- 
ming it tight against the can. The speed with which the 
can is spun makes the paint whirl up to the top, where it 
sticks to the side of the can, making the cover air-tight. 
This process requires great care, for if the can is not 
spun fast enough, the paint will not rise to the top, while 
if it is spun too fast, the paint will spill. A friction-top 
can, in which quarts, pints and half -pints are packed, has 
a plug-like cover, which sets down tightly into the top of 
the can. This kind of top is used for small cans because 
it can be pried off and is therefore uninjured by opening, 
making it possible to keep the can covered as long as the 
paint lasts. The ream-top can, however, cannot be opened 
except by cutting, and is therefore used only for the 
larger tins, which are bought by people who use a great 
deal of paint in such a short time that it has no chance to 
skin over. 

"Pictures B and C show paint in cases. In each pic- 
ture the case at the left contains 6 one-gallon cans; the 



522 EXPORT PACKING 

one in the middle contains 12 half -gallons (packed in two 
layers) ; the one at the right contains 24 quarter-gallons 
(packed in two layers). Notice that each of these cases 
contains 6 gallons of paint, although the size of the can 
varies in each instance. Five-gallon cans of paint are, 
however, usually packed one in a case because paint is 
so heavy. The purpose of the packers is not to have 
more than 100 pounds weight in any case, especially for 
shipments to South America, where the last stage of the 
journey is usually by muleback. Occasionally, however, 
as much as 50 gallons of paint are packed together; in 
such cases — usually for mining companies or other large 
customers — a barrel is used. 

' l Cans are prevented from rubbing against each other 
by means of wooden partitions between rows, but no 
wood is laid between the layers. To fill up the spaces, 
sawdust is shaken into the case. In one respect, picture 
C is misleading : crates are never used for packing paint ; 
those shown in the picture contain empty cans as they 
are sent to the factory for filling. The lettering on the 
ends of the cases is burned into the wood. Firm and 
brand names are put on in this way, but the number 
referring to color and the statement of quantity (as '2 — 
5 gin's cans' — see picture A) also gross and net weights 
in pounds and kilos, are stenciled. Cases are strapped 
with iron two or three inches from each end, and the 
straps are fastened with a small piece of metal by means 
of a machine which clinches it so tightly that it cuts into 
the wood, thus preventing slipping. 

"Varnish is packed in oblong cans. Cases contain 
cans varying from the five-gallon size to a quarter-pint. 
As varnish is much lighter than paint, 2 five-gallon cans 
are often packed in a single case, as in picture A. The 
solid-top cans are always used, but instead of cutting 
open the entire top, a small nozzle is attached so that the 
varnish can be poured easily, and this nozzle is provided 
with a ream-top cap." 

Another prominent manufacturer and exporter of 
paints supplies a photograph of his export packing 




Courtesy of Devoe & Raynolds Co., Inc. 

(B) Cases Containing Paint. 

Each case contains six gallons of paint. Case at left has 6 one gallon cans; 
case in middle, 12 one-half gallon cans packed m two layers; case at right. 
2-i one-quarter gallon cans in tivo layers. Note wooden partitions between 
rows, Xo wood is used between layers. 




Courtesy of Patton Paint Co. 

Packing of Paints and Varnishes. 

The lower center case contains 6 one gallon tins of liquid paint. Cans in. 
upper center case are oval, a type peculiar to this brand. Case at left contains 
2 five gallon square cans fitting snugly, and making cleats or sawdust packing 
unnecessary. Case at right contains 12 one gallon cans fitting snugly. 




Courtesy of Joseph Dixon Crucible Co. 

Packing of Graphite Grease. 

Case of 6 ten pound cans of graphite grease packed in double-faced pasteboard 
cartons. Spaces between cans and cartons are filled ivith excelsior for export 
shipments. Cases are iron-stropped. 

523 




Courtesy of Devoe & Raynolds Co., Inc. 
(A) Cases Containing Varnish. 
Photograph shows cases containing two five gallon cans of varmsh. 




(C) 



Courtesy of Devoe & Raynolds Co., Inc. 
Method of Packing Paint. 



Wooden partitions are placed beticeen rows of cans to prevent rubbing. Saic- 
dust is shaken in the case to fill up space. 

524 



PACKING OF TINNED GOODS 525 

(reproduced on page 523), and writes: "Sawdust is 
packed around the tins when our customers desire. Many 
of them, however, do not care for the sawdust, as they 
say it sometimes mars the appearance of the labels, and 
they agree with us that it does not add to the strength of 
the packing. However, in a case of paints it is impossible 
to entirely eliminate an occasional leaker, and in such 
cases the sawdust absorbs the leaking paint, thereby pre- 
venting it from smearing up the other cans in the case 
and running down onto the other cases in the shipment. 
The cans in the upper center case you will note are oval. 
We discontinued this type of cans as a war economy 
measure. The cases both right and left of the cut contain 
square tins fitting snugly in boxes so that no packing 
whatever is required. In the other case the tins are of 
the double-tight compression-top type, fitted in boxes 
made of white pine, ends of %" material, sides of %" ; 
cross-pieces of %" stuff form 6 compartments, holding 
the cans in place, the top of the case fitting tightly against 
another. Cases are strapped with half-inch iron bands 
at each end." 

A large house specializing in graphite products sub- 
mits photographs (see pages 523, 541) of its packing 
of graphite paints and greases in cans, one photograph 
showing six one-gallon cans packed in excelsior, another 
showing 6 ten-gallon cans of grease packed in double- 
faced pasteboard cartons. This photograph was taken 
before the interstices had been packed with excelsior, as 
is always done in export, but not in domestic shipments. 
All cases are thoroughly protected by strong iron strap- 
ping. 

Packing of Oils.— A large shipper states: "Our cans 
are manufactured by ourselves and made from the best 
quality tin plate available. For the one-gallon size and 
under we use I. C. plate weighing approximately 107 
pounds to the base box, and I. X. material for containers 
over one gallon capacity, having a weight of 135 pounds 
to the base box. Our can factory is equipped with the 



526 EXPORT PACKING 

most modern machinery and is managed by thoroughly 
competent and experienced help. In the manufacture of 
all cans we use the best quality solder that can be pro- 
cured for seaming the sides, tops and bottoms. Every 
can is tested carefully by air pressure to determine leaks 
before the tins are filled. After the cans are filled and 
sealed, they receive a further test for the purpose of 
detecting leakers before they are packed in cases. 

"Cases are set up in our case factory by modern 
machines. The best grade of white pine lumber is used 
for making the shooks, which are of one piece, sides, tops 
and bottoms, and free from knots and other imperfec- 
tions which would tend to weaken the case or detract 
from its appearance. We handle only nailed cases, our 
experience being that these are much stronger than pack- 
ages with lock corners. The thicknesses of the shooks 
are y 2 " sides, tops and bottoms, and %" ends. On export 
business we furnish practically only two sizes, namely, 
cases containing 2 five-gallon and 6 one-gallon cans. 
Cases are shipped iron-strapped when consigned to cer- 
tain countries — for example, the Far East, South Amer- 
ica, and so on. For Great Britain and certain other 
countries, on the contrary, we do not consider iron 
strapping necessary. 

"After the filled cans have been tested, they are 
packed carefully in cases, the covers of which are nailed 
on by hand. The packages are placed on a conveyer and 
put in storage. They are delivered from storage direct 
to the inside of the car or to the car door by means of a 
gravity conveyer. They are removed from the conveyer 
by hand and stored carefully in the cars. Plenty of 
dunnage wood of the best grade is used for blocking 
packages to prevent their shifting while in transit, so as 
to insure their arrival in good condition at the seaboard. 
These packages receive another careful inspection at the 
steamer's side by our own experienced coopers, so that 
when they are delivered aboard ship we have every assur- 
ance that we have done everything in our power to safe- 
guard against defective cases reaching our foreign trade. ' ' 



PACKING OF TINNED GOODS 527 

Kerosene oil, in cases almost invariably containing 
two tins of 5 gallons each, has been shipped for so many 
years to all parts of the world by large and experienced 
companies who have specialized in such shipping, that no 
description seems necessary in that connection. How- 
ever, it has been pointed out that no little complaint has 
been received from many foreign markets of punctured 
tins and consequent loss of contents. This damage seems 
usually to have resulted from careless nailing of cases, 
although in some of the smaller markets to which case 
oil is shipped in small quantities, not in cargo lots, com- 
plaint is made of the perforation of outer cases as well 
as inner tins on account of superimposed packages of 
heavy weight or irregular shapes. 

Packing of Tinned Fruits, Fish, Etc.— It is perhaps 
in the packing of tinned fruits, vegetables, some meat 
products, fish, and similar commodities, that remarks 
earlier in this chapter, relating to the advantages to be 
derived from the use of square instead of round tins, 
are particularly to be noted. While many paint manu- 
facturers, for example, have utilized the square tin, 
exporters of tinned fruits, vegetables, salmon, lobster, 
and the like, seem not yet fully conscious of the distinc- 
tion which exists between domestic and export shipping, 
in the sense that cases for steamship transportation 
overseas are charged freight not on the basis of the 
weight of the case, but on its cubic measurement, and 
that every inch saved in a cubic volume occupied by a 
case means a corresponding saving to the consignee in 
the cost of goods. 

Another most important consideration, in connection 
with export shipments of such commodities, is the em- 
phatic necessity of protection against pilfering. Meats, 
fruits, vegetables, are peculiarly attractive to the petty 
thief, as are chocolates and confectionery, and in many 
instances foreign customers of American houses have 
complained of losses of as high as 50 per cent in their 
shipments. In this connection, reference should be made 
to the chapter dealing with protection against pilfering. 



528 EXPORT PACKING 

As almost all such products bear attractive labels, 
and are intended for shelf display in retail shops, the 
preservation of the labels and the maintenance of an 
attractive package are peculiarly desirable and neces- 
sary. A merchant in Hong Kong, writing that he 
imports large quantities of canned fruits, suggests 
packing the interstices between the tins with light saw- 
dust, so that if one tin becomes " bilged " from one cause 
or another, the sawdust would soak up the moisture and 
prevent it from affecting the remainder. (In this regard 
see former remarks as to similar packing for paints.) 
The same merchant also suggested that it would be desi- 
rable to mark the cases containing perishable goods with 
the legend, "Stow Away From Boiler.' ' In this regard, 
however, it is to be noted that such a legend in the English 
language will be only understood on vessels and in ports 
where English is spoken, and furthermore that it is an 
unfortunate fact that longshoremen pay very little atten- 
tion to warnings of any description. The Hong Kong 
house just referred to also wrote: "We are of the 
opinion that if two light one-quarter inch battens were 
nailed along each side of the top of each case containing 
such goods, that it would afford a means of ventilation 
between cases while in transit, with considerable bene- 
fit ; ' ' in reference to which suggestion it is further to be 
observed that the cubic measurement of the cases would 
be just so much increased by the addition of the battens 
which are recommended. Whether resulting extra freight 
charges might be offset by the better condition in which 
goods of this sort would arrive at destination, is a ques- 
tion which would have to be answered by experience. 

In regard to cases to be used for containing commodi- 
ties of the sort now in question, the following has been 
extracted and abbreviated from a report made some time 
ago by a commercial agent visiting Porto Rico. He 
observed that in unloading canned salmon, about twenty 
cases (each of 60 pounds) were placed at one time in a 
rope net for hoisting from the ship's hold and swinging 
out over the dock. The goods, under the supervision of 




Courtesy of National Biscuit Co. 

(2) Packing of Large Tins of Biscuits 

Large tins are wrapped separately to prevent rusting from contact with 
moisture. Each tin is labelled and has a strip at top of label identifying 
contents. 




Courtesy of Henry Heide. 

Packing of Confectionery. 

. Tin cans containing candies likely to be affected by dampness are packed 
in wooden cases with thirty k lb. or sixteen 7 tb. cans to the case. A thin 
cardboard is placed between cans to keep lithographed label from scratching. 
Cases are lined with heavy paper. 

529 



PACKING OF TINNED GOODS 531 

the chief officer, were well handled, and no fault could be 
found with the method or care taken, yet in every net of 
cases three or four were broken, and the cans came out, 
running the risk of puncturing from nails or dents in 
the cases, and a few, of course, disappeared in the gar- 
ments of the roustabouts. * Cases in this shipment were 
made of good material, nailed with IV2" smooth bright 
wire nails. Herein lay the fault. Such nails were driven 
through the tops and bottoms into the ends of the cases, 
entering with the grain of the wood, and were unable to 
stand the strain of 48 cans against either the top or the 
bottom. A four-penny cement-coated nail should have 
been used, with band iron, with which all such shipping 
cases ought always to be strapped for overseas trans- 
portation. This agent states that importers in Porto 
Kico are charged more for strapped cases than for those 
with iron bands, although increasing the cost of packages 
merely for strapping them must come from a lack of 
knowledge or consideration on the part of manufacturers. 
Just as heavy nails seem to be used for strapped as for 
unstrapped cases, and the saving through the use of 
lighter nails will offset the cost of the strap. Iron 
strapped cases require a much lighter nail than a case 
without straps. 

A large American house specializing in shipping 
evaporated vegetables and fruits, states that it has found 
a very successful export packing of such commodities, 
sealed in tin cans, to consist of a light case with four or 
five wires, in place of the ordinary end strapping. This 
concern states that it has not yet received a single com- 
plaint regarding this style of packing. 

Packing of Cereals.— A very large international ship- 
per of cereals states that its products are often shipped 
in one-pound ten-ounce tin cans, 5%" high by S 1 /^' in 
diameter, hermetically sealed, packed 36 tins to a wooden 
case. The cases are made of hardwood lumber — sides, 
tops and bottoms %" ? ends %". Each end has two cleats, 
2"x 1 /2 / ', running the full depth of the case, and every case 
is bound with nailed steel straps around each end, 



532 EXPORT PACKING 

Packing of Biscuits.— Humidity would be strictly a 
calamity as related to export shipments of crackers and 
biscuits, and so we see exporters of these products adopt- 
ing every precaution to guard against this peril. Pre- 
cautionary measures, however, do not mean alone pro- 
tection of the goods, so far as the immediate container 
is concerned, but also imply suitable outer casing and 
rugged substantial packing as a whole. The author is 
indebted to a large exporter for the photographs of this 
chapter (see pages 529, 541), and for the following 
comment: " Goods exported by us to nearby and for- 
eign lands, including the Near and Far East, are packed 
in hermetically sealed tins, and in addition we export our 
famous carton package goods, but only to such points 
where climatic conditions are favorable. The tins vary 
in size, containing from 2y 2 ounces to 10 and 12 pounds. 
They are sealed by means of an inner lid of tin soldered 
to a flange or rim which projects inside of the box from 
the top, thus preventing damage from moisture, insects, 
etc. A slip cover goes on over this, fitting tight around 
the edge of the box. The smaller tins, as shown in 
photograph No. 1 are wrapped together in heavy paper 
glued at both ends, in units of 6 or 12, according to the 
size of the tin. Each tin is encased with a photographic 
label showing a reproduction of the biscuit at both ends*. 
The larger tins, shown in photograph No. 2, are wrapped 
separately, to prevent tin from getting wet and rusting. 
Each tin is labeled with the company label and an addi- 
tional 'name strip* at the top of the label, to identify the 
contents. The case in the picture contains three layers 
of tins, 48 in all, each with net weight of four pounds. 
The size of the case is 19 cubic feet.*' 

One of the complaints received from foreign cus- 
tomers in regard to American goods, relates to the fact 
that some American shippers of biscuit have not given 
sufficient attention to the size of the packages in which 
biscuits are packed. Boxes measuring inside from 2%" 
to 3" are made to hold biscuits only 2%" in diameter, 
thus allowing a play to the contents which is quite likely 



PACKING OF TINNED GOODS 533 

to damage a biscuit in a 10,000-mile journey. Since these 
unit packages may not be opened for months after they 
have been shipped, or even months after they have been 
received, the annoyance and ill feeling caused when the 
damage is discovered is so much the more intensified. 

Confectionery.— An examination of the literature on 
the subject of American export trade in confections will 
show constant stressing of the importance of packing. 
The composition of American confections and the styles 
of sweetmeats seem to meet foreign demand satisfac- 
torily, but there is apparently a good deal of dissatis- 
faction with reference to the way in which the goods are 
packed. It would seem that the American export trade 
in this class of goods could be very materially increased 
by proper attention to and consideration of the needs of 
the foreign buyer in the matter of packing. 

The author presents with this chapter two photo- 
graphs (pages 448, 529) furnished by a house doing a 
constantly increasing trade abroad, the comment on these 
illustrations being as follows: "Candy for export to 
South America or other southern countries, is always 
packed either in glass jars or in tin cans to prevent 
spoiling by heat and moisture. The jars are used when 
the candy is intended for sale direct to the consumer, a 
jar or so at a time; they are hermetically sealed by a 
vacuum process, and will remain air-tight indefinitely, 
until opened, but not afterwards, as the cover has to be 
punctured in order to open. If the dealer wishes to sell 
in bulk, or if he lives in a particularly damp climate, his 
order is packed in tins with screw tops, so that he can 
sell a part of the contents and yet keep the remainder 
in good condition in the same container. Tin cans are 
packed in wooden cases, with 30 four-pound or 16 seven- 
pound cans to the case. Gross weight, with four-pound 
cans, about 175 pounds ; measure, 4% cubic feet. Gross 
weight, with seven-pound cans, as shown in picture, about 
145 pounds ; measure, about 3 cubic feet. Certain kinds 
of candies, such as jelly beans, Jordan almonds, licorice 
lozenges, hard candies and other kinds which are affected 



534 EXPORT PACKING 

by dampness are always packed in tin. A thin card- 
board is placed between cans to keep the lithographed 
label from scratching. Cases are lined with heavy paper. 
The case is covered and strapped in the same way as for 
the above. Address, etc., is pnt on by means of a 
machine-cut stencil." (See also cut page 448, Chapter 
XVI.) 

Some exporters of confectionery, doing a large busi- 
ness with China, advise the present writer that all candy 
shipped to that market is first wrapped in oil paper, and 
instead of being shipped in the usual pails, is put up in 
cans holding 40" pounds each, made of the lightest possible 
tin and said to weigh 3 pounds less than the ordinary 
kerosene tin. These special tins have been requested by 
Chinese customers, probably in order to save porterage 
charges, since it is understood that the tins are individ- 
ually transported by porters to interior points after 
having been distributed to various provincial cities by 
the Shanghai importers. Four of these tin cans, weigh- 
ing 40 pounds each, are packed in a case as strong, sub- 
stantial and securely strapped as the manufacturers can 
make it. At first, round cans were used, but this manu- 
facturer has learned the advantage of using square tins, 
and now has manufactured for him especially square tins 
with screw tops in the usual style, to hold the contents 
above noted. 

Packing House Products.— One of the largest Amer- 
ican packing houses supplies a number of photographs 
showing the fashion in which packing house products in 
tins are packed for export. Photographs on page 530 
show cases of tins such as contain lard, oleomargarine, 
etc. The case is made of heavy pine, reenforced at each 
end, and so designed that if dropped on one end the strain 
will be equally distributed. The tins are protected by 
coarse shavings intended to prevent the denting or break- 
age of the individual containers. Metal straps are used 
at each end of the case to secure the boards and to 
strengthen the ends. 

The photograph on page 530 shows three distinct 




■HHHHHSB1 

Courtesy of Swift & Co. 
Packing of Cotton Seed Oil 

Export packages made to withstand rough handling. Cases arc exceptionally 
heavy. Tins are made to fit snugly and are protected by layers of shavings 
above and beneath. 




Courtesy of WasJiburn-Cros'by Co. 
Thirty Seven Methods of Packing Flour. 

Tins shown are of h, 7, Ik, 22, 25, 28, 33, kk, 50, 55 and 110 pounds. In 
addition there are half-barrels and barrels with wire, flat and wooden hoops, as 
well as osnaburg, cotton, jute, and drill sacks of various sizes and weights de- 
manded by foreign customers. This shows the extent to which one firm meets 
its customer's requirements. 

535 




Courtesy of E. R. Squibb and Sons. 
Packing of Ether. 

Case containing 200 one-quarter pound tins of ether in regulation carton. 
Case is tin lined, but photograph was taken before top was soldered on. 



4b 




— 



■ 1 






:":|MhI 








iiS 


1 *» 


^t ?"' * "*' 


m& 




■ ^nt 








Hn&s 










'• . 



^.*!sWH?^jr— — — '\^mc 




Courtesif of E. R. Squibb and Sons. 
Case Containing Bicarbonate of Soda. 
Case contains % Zo. tins some o/ wMcfo are packed flat to show manufac- 
turer's label. Excelsior is used only to fill vacant spaces. 

536 



PACKING OF TINNED GOODS 537 

styles of packing, the case in the center containing four 
tins only, instead of 25. This is constructed of the same 
heavy lumber, and protected with similar iron straps, but 
in this instance the corners are reenforced from the in- 
side instead of the outside. 

Still another style of packing lard for export is illus- 
trated in cut 3, page 530. This case is made for shipping 
to countries where packages are handled very roughly 
and are subject to being dropped on their heads or other- 
wise. The partitions shown are necessary in order to 
keep the weight of one tin from resting on another. In 
one case it will be noted that the larger tins are sepa- 
rated each by a partition, while in the other case the 
smaller tins have one partition only, near the center of 
the box. These distribute the weight more evenly to 
avoid damage. In both of these cases it will be noted that, 
in addition to the iron strapping at each end, an extra 
strap has been put about the middle of the cases, which 
not only strengthens the cases but prevents bulging from 
any cause and consequent sifting out of the shavings used 
for additional protection. 

Cut on page 535 shows the method of shipping jcotton- 
seed oil in tins intended for destinations where rough 
handling is to be expected, because there exist no con- 
veniences for unloading into lighters other than slings 
and ropes. The cases shown are exceptionally heavy and 
the tins fit as snugly as possible and are protected by 
coarse shavings, of which there is a layer both at top 
and bottom of the tins. The ends of the cases are pro- 
tected by iron straps. 

Packing of Flour.— Exports of wheat flour in 1919 
amounted to nearly $300,000,000, and whereas this was in 
a sense a record, the exports of this commodity have for 
many years run into large figures. Although the demand 
recently has been one due to urgent necessity, this fact 
has not in any measure caused experienced flour export- 
ers to depart from carefully thought out export methods, 
and from the policy of doing everything possible to please 
customers and literally follow instructions. 



538 EXPORT PACKING 

There are few commodities which present a greater 
variety of packing than is the case for flour, and in this 
instance, like so many others, the standard packing 
methods are the result of following the customers ' 
instructions, which in turn are dictated by local condi- 
tions or local necessity. Thus in the case of one well- 
known exporter, to whom the author is indebted for the 
photograph used with this text, there are no less than 
thirty-seven different packages used in the ordinary for- 
eign trade routine. This variety is the result of many 
years' experience, and each package corresponds to some 
requirement of a foreign country, or in the case of the 
large, more or less regular sacks, to the lack of 
requirement. 

While American flour is usually exported either in 
barrels or in bags, yet there is a considerable demand for 
this product in tins, to meet which one of our largest 
millers provides a great variety of tins, some of which 
are illustrated on page 535. The tins in question are pro- 
vided in many different sizes, as individual customers in 
different markets of the world may request and instruct. 
Thus those illustrated in the photograph include tins 
of 4, 7, 14, 22, 25, 28, 33, 44, 50, 55 and 110 pounds. Some 
of these denominations are, it will be- noted, intended for 
countries using the metric system of weights. Other 
sizes are intended for retail packages in very hot, damp 
tropical countries, and usually in parts of such countries 
very difficult of access, where packages must be small and 
light for ease of transportation, and tin containers are 
essential for the preservation of the flour in retail estab- 
lishments. 

Chemical Products. — Photographs supplied by a 
prominent manufacturer of chemical and pharmaceutical 
products illustrate methods adopted for packing such 
products in tins. An accompanying photograph (page 
536) shows a case containing 200 quarter-pound tins of 
ether, each tin in the usual carton. Cases are tin-lined, 
and packed; the top is next soldered on, guarding 
against the corrosion of the tin containers through the 



PACKING OF TINNED GOODS 539 

action of sea water or sea air, and resulting leakage. 

Another photograph shows a case of bicarbonate of 
soda in quarter-pound tins. A feature of this packing 
is that the manufacturers lay some of the rows of cans 
flat in order to display their labels, excelsior being used 
only to fill in vacant spaces. 

A third photograph (page 549) from another house, 
represents a standard case of 12 one-gallon tins of anti- 
septic fluid. It will be noted from this photograph that 
4 tins are placed in each carton, 3 cartons — -that is, 
12 one-gallon tins — making a secure and compact ship- 
ping case. Particularly to be observed is the fact that 
inside of each carton of 4 tins a wooden block has been 
placed, in order to prevent the shifting of the cans while 
en route, wfrich would result in throwing their full 
weight upon the handles, crushing them down, and pos- 
sibly cutting into the cans themselves, thus causing loss 
from leakage. 

Packing of Compressed Hops. — As a rule deteriora- 
tion in any one of its various forms is taken care of by 
different sorts of glass or metal containers which pre- 
vent contact with the infecting microbes of the air, the 
containers themselves presenting us with the packing 
problem. In the case of hops, however, the packing case 
may be at one and the same time the shipping container 
and the means of preserving the delicacy and value of the 
commodity. 

A high quality of hops is alone obtained by air-drying 
at a low, even temperature, the air being fanned through 
the mass and the moisture removed by forced air 
draught. Drying hops by artificial heat depreciates the 
quality of the oils, converts the soft resins into hard 
resins, and destroys to a great extent the brewing value 
of the hops. It is these oils and resins that the export 
package of hops must conserve, and the flavor and aroma 
must be preserved in spite of transportation hazards and 
climatic perils. 

A house with a large export business describes its ex- 
port package as follows (see cuts, page 549) : 



540 EXPORT PACKING 

"Our Style No. 250 packing: — These hops are first 
pressed into cakes or slabs 16" square by 1%" thick, and 
weigh 8 pounds net, and 44 of the cakes are packed in tin- 
lined wooden cases. To offer additional protection 
against damage, the case is lined with a heavy paraffin 
kraft paper. This packing protects the hops against loss 
of flavor. The case can be shipped to any climate with- 
out danger of hops being damaged by the aroma from 
other merchandise. 

' ' Our packing No. 251 : The hops are pressed the 
same as in packing No. 250, except that 7 cakes are 
packed in one tin containing 56 pounds net — 3 tins per 
case, making a total net weight per case of 168 pounds. 
This package is especially suited for the Central and 
South American markets where the exporter or jobber 
buys in case quantities, and wants a package that can 
be unpacked and redistributed in small quantities with- 
out exposing contents to damage from climatic conditions 
or insects. The cost of this extra packing does not exceed 
3 cents per pound. The maximum weight per cubic 
foot can be shipped in these cases. This we claim as a 
very big improvement over the old method of packing 
hops for export shipment, and it is meeting with the 
hearty approval of the trade in all sections of the world. * ' 

Printing Inks in Export Tins. — The author esteems 
himself fortunate to have the following interesting and 
very highly valuable communication written for this vol- 
ume by 0. L. Peabody: 

"The packing of printing inks for the export market 
is a subject that requires careful study and considerable 
experience if results satisfactory to the consumer are to 
be obtained. The best of packing materials should be 
used. Every care must be taken that cans, cases and all 
other packages are made of good quality material and 
heavy enough to stand the rough usage to which the pack- 
ages are subjected in traveling long distances. . 

"Export shipments are subject to a large number of 
handlings; such as the inland trip to tidewater, cartage 
at the port of shipment, possibly to a warehouse and later 

















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Courtesy of Geo. H. Morrill Co. 

Packing of Printing Inks. 

(Left) Shows method of wrapping ca/is^in paper to protect labels, water- 
proof case lining and wooden packing case. (Right) Case ready for shipment 
showing method of strapping, nailing and stencilling. 




Courtesy of Geo. H. Morrill Co. 

Partly Packed Case of Printing Inks. 

Rolls of cans, packed in paper, are firmly bedded in shavings. A waterproof 
case lining is likewise used. 

542 



PACKING OF TINNED GOODS 543 

to the steamer, also loading into the vessel, generally in 
a sling with many other materials. The same process is 
repeated at the other end of the journey where the situ- 
ation is sometimes complicated by the fact that it is neces- 
sary to lighter the cargo. In the final analysis, many of 
the shipments are carried on pack animals into the in- 
terior of the country. On account of the various han- 
dlings, small packages are preferable to larger ones 
because they are easier to handle and are proportionately 
stronger. 

" Every batch of ink which my company manufactures 
has not only the number and name of the ink, but also a 
serial grinding number. This grinding number refers to 
the particular batch of ink in question. A small sample 
of this batch is kept and also a full and complete record 
of what went into the batch and all other facts concerning 
it, so that if at any time later the company is furnished 
with the grinding number, full and complete information 
about the batch may be had and also, which is more im- 
portant still, a sample of the actual batch of ink in ques- 
tion is available. Every package of ink turned out by 
our company carries this grinding number either by per- 
foration in the band around the can, a perforated metal 
tag attached to the package, or by stenciling. This has 
been found to be a very valuable feature. The name and 
number of the mk are shown on the label. 

"Ink is packed in %, 1, 5 and 10-pound cans. Cans 
for the same quantity of ink may vary greatly, but this 
is unavoidable. Care is taken to select cans such that 
the pound of ink completely fills the can. This is neces- 
sary in order to avoid having the ink flow about in the 
can and mixing into the ink any skin that is formed. 
Therefore it happens that while a number of cans may 
contain one pound of ink, the sizes of the various cans 
vary considerably. Although this necessitates carrying 
in stock many different sizes of cans, this bad feature 
is amply compensated for by the fact that when each can 
is full the ink reaches the customer in good condition. 
There is a wax paper placed on the top of the ink after 



544 EXPORT PACKING 

the can is filled, the cover is put on, and the can is then 
banded with a substantial paper band, after which it 
is labeled. Three things in connection with the banding 
and labeling are noteworthy: first, the character of the 
labels; for it is to be noted that the labels are designed 
to be characteristic and serve as a trademark or means of 
identification of the inks, no matter where the cans may 
go, and each can also carries the label of the representa- 
tive who handles the ink; second, the grinding number 
perforated in the band which is also an important fea- 
ture; third, liquids are packed in screw top cans, which 
are also banded and labeled, as are all of the cans of our 
manufacture. 

"The wooden cases in which all cans (and tubes) are 
shipped are very important in export shipments. The 
case used is of special construction as shown in cut 
page 542. Attention is called particularly to the fol- 
lowing: the small size of the case, 21V±" x 17%" x 15y 2 ", 
outside dimensions ; the thickness of the wood from which 
the case is made, — %" stock; the way the case is con- 
structed, — particularly the cleats on the end and the way 
they are built in connection with the rest of the case 
(cut page 542 shows this feature, which gives a corner 
which protects the cleat, making it practically impossible 
for the cleat to be pulled off, and also holds the cover in 
position) ; best results are obtained by using sufficient 
nails, but not too many, coated nails being the best. 

"In order to make the cases as waterproof as possible, 
a heavy manila paper bag lining is used. This lining is 
made of two thicknesses of manila paper with a tar prep- 
aration between, making a practically waterproof paper. 
The lining is made the exact size of the inside of the case 
so that it drops down into the case without folds or 
creases. This lining is shown at the left in cut page 542. 
The rolls of cans are placed in the case as shown in cut 
page 542, and shavings, which are much better than saw- 
dust, because they do not sift out, are packed carefully 
around each roll of cans and tamped down solidly, which 
gives a very firm packing of the cans in the case. A case 



PACKING OF TINNED GOODS 545 

so packed is shown in cut page 542. The lining is then 
folded over as shown in the same cut, and the cover nailed 
on the case. 

" After the case is nailed, it is strapped with iron, as 
shown in cut page 542. This strapping is put on with a 
special machine which draws it so tight that the strapping 
absolutely cuts into the wood at the corners, after which 
it is sealed with a special seal, as shown on the top of the 
box, cut page 542. A nail is driven through the strap- 
ping and through each board of the case. This not only 
holds the strapping securely, but discourages pilfering. 
The case is then ready for stenciling. 

"Great care should be used in stenciling cases in 
order that it may be easily read, and so that there can be 
no question as to any of the lettering on the case. This 
is also shown in cut page 542. 

"Five and ten-pound cans are packed in the same size 
cases in a similar manner. The cases are comparatively 
small, because printing ink is a relatively heavy material, 
and it is found that the smaller the cases, the stronger 
they are and the better they travel. These cases have 
been used for export shipments for the past twelve years 
without a complaint from any customer on account of 
faulty packing. 

"Years of experience and many experiments have 
shown the methods described to be fundamentally neces- 
sary and correct for the successful packing of printing 
inks for export. They are fundamental for all export 
packing. The principal object is that the goods shall 
reach the ultimate consumer in an attractive form, pack- 
ages unbroken and in good condition, and this latter 
statement is especially true of the labels," 



CHAPTER XX 
EXPORT PACKING OF GOODS IN CARTONS 

THE neat and attractive fashion in which a large 
and increasing variety of American goods of all 
descriptions are put up in cartons for the retail 
trade show-window and shelf and counter display, has 
attracted the admiration of foreign merchants all around 
the world and the envy of European manufacturers of 
similar .products. The English trade papers especially 
have repeatedly urged on British manufacturers an imita- 
tion of American practices in thus packing shelf and 
counter goods. The packing of such goods in cartons for 
export shipment, therefore, involves primarily the deliv- 
ery of the contents of cases to customers in distant lands 
in the salable and attractive condition in which they leave 
the original shipper, that is, in the condition in which the 
maker of the goods intends and expects they will arrive 
and be placed on display by retail dealers, no matter 
where situated. 

At first blush it might be thought that packing for ex- 
port shipment of such commodities as are now under con- 
sideration would involve no special problems, — that all 
anyone would have to do would be to take the individual 
cartons, stow them away in the case, nail it up, and for- 
ward it. But on maturer consideration it will be recog- 
nized that there are a great many considerations which 
ought to have thoughtful attention. In the first place 
the strength of the cartons employed when goods are 
despatched to overseas markets ought, in many instances, 
to be superior to the somewhat flimsy cardboard occasion- 
ally used with some products for domestic sales purposes. 
In intimate connection with that consideration comes the 
question of the size of cartons, and the packing of the 
goods themselves within the cartons. As has been re- 

546 



EXPORT PACKING OF GOODS IN CARTONS 547 

peatedly pointed out in this volume, waste of space in 
foreign shipments means increased freight charges on the 
goods, and if an unnecessary freight cost, even of 2 per 
cent on the value of the goods, can be avoided it is ob- 
viously highly desirable that the shipper should adopt 
every possible measure to affect this saving and space 
reduction. Many cartoned goods are shipped for ex- 
port in identically the same fashion in which they 
are supplied to trade here at home. In the latter trade it 
is obviously of no moment at all whether the contents of 
a carton fit exactly or snugly, or whether there may be 
half an inch in length, breadth, or thickness which is 
unoccupied by the contents. This waste of space may, 
however, be a highly important matter in export ship- 
ments; take, for example, a case containing 60 or 100 
cartons of no matter what product, and if there is a waste 
of space in each carton of half an inch in length and a 
quarter of an inch in height, it is not difficult to figure out 
that the unnecessary cubic space occupied by a case con- 
taining such a quantity of cartons would easily measure 
a total of two or three cubic feet. This might mean pay- 
ing unnecessary freight and other charges of as much as 
two or three dollars on the case in question, and this un- 
necessary charge might amount to a total of 2 per cent of 
the value of the contents. Furthermore, if the contents 
of a carton do not exactly fill it there is certain to be a 
good deal of play and rubbing or knocking of the contents 
in the course of repeated handlings before the shipment 
reaches its ultimate foreign destination, and hence if the 
cartons themselves are not strong and substantial they 
are not likely to arrive in immaculate condition. On all 
of these accounts, therefore, most careful thought ought 
to be given to the desirability of special cartons for 
export. 

Of course shipping any commodities in cartons is not 
the most economical possible fashion of so despatching 
them by steamship. The packing in cartons inevitably 
involves the use of considerably greater shipping space 
than would be necessitated were the same commodities 



548 EXPORT PACKING 

packed in bulk, without the use of cartons. However, im- 
porters and retail merchants in other countries prefer to 
pay the higher freight charges involved when goods are 
forwarded in attractive cartons. These materially assist 
in increasing sales at retail, and no American manufac- 
turer should contemplate shipping in bulk when this ele- 
ment of attractiveness of the package is an important 
one — at least, unless his foreign customers specifically 
urge and instruct the abandonment of the carton. In- 
stances have been known where, in certain Latin Ameri- 
can markets, where differing rates of duty apply to cases 
containing mixed commodities, importers have instructed 
that the goods themselves be packed separately, in bulk, 
and that the cartons in which the goods are ordinarily 
shown and sold at retail be separately shipped, in order 
that the importer, after securing reduced import duties 
through such shipment, might properly repack the goods 
in the cartons after receipt in his warehouses. 

Before passing on to other considerations affecting 
the packing of goods in cartons, it should be noted that 
the interior packing of cartons should be designed to pre- 
vent any rubbing or similar damage to their contents. 
These should fit closely, or if not, be adequately pro- 
tected by wrappings or stuffings of tissue paper or other 
materials, as the nature of the contents might require. 
This applies particularly when contents do not exactly fit 
the cartons. 

It would appear to be true that most manufacturers 
and shippers of commodities now under consideration 
employ stock cases for their export shipments. In the 
domestic trade the commodities in question may be and 
probably usually are sold in standard quantities, a dozen 
or a gross of one article, 50 or 100 of another article, per- 
haps 48 or 60 pairs of shoes, and so on. Stock cases 
adapted for such standard quantities may be entirely 
suitable for export work, but a good many foreign orders 
involve shipment in other than standard quantities, and 
very frequently may involve shipment of odd quantities 
of assorted goods. In such instances stock cases ought 




Courtesy of Parke, Davis & Co. 
Packing of Antiseptic Fluid. 

Standard case of 12 one gallon tins. Four tins are placed in each carton, 
and three cartons fill case compactly. Each carton contains a wooden block to 
prevent shifting of tins. 




Courtesy of E. Clemens Horst & Co. 
Packing of Compressed Hops. 

(Left) Hops are pressed into cakes 16" square by 1*4" thick and weighing 
8 lbs., kh cakes being packed in tin lined case. (Right) Another method of 
packing hops. Seven cakes are packed in one tin containing 56 lbs., three tins 
being packed to a case. 

549 




Courtesy of Hanan & Son. 
Packing of Shoes. 

Case contains a waterproof lining which is folded down over top to prevent 
damage by moisture. 




Courtesy of Joseph Dixon Crucible Co. 
Packing of Assorted Lead Pencils. 

The shipment is carefully protected by paper linings, iron straps, and the 
open spaces filled with excelsior. 

550 



EXPORT PACKING OF GOODS IN CARTONS 551 

not to be supplied unless they exactly fit the quantities of 
cartons which are to go forward. It is much better to 
have special cases built rather than attempt to stuff with 
excelsior or paper the vacant spaces, which may be left 
by packing in a stock case a miscellaneous assortment. 
Furthermore, stock cases ought, of course, never to be 
used unless they are of weight and character entirely suit- 
able for export shipments — that is to say — of the descrip- 
tion which has elsewhere and at numerous points in this 
volume been described and strongly emphasized. 

Waterproof linings for cases to contain goods in car- 
tons, and in many instances hermetically sealed tin 
linings for such cases, are peculiarly necessary; and 
sometimes soft linings or cushioning between the walls of 
the case and the cartons, or even between the rows or 
layers of cartons are equally important, since the preser- 
vation for arrival in attractive condition of the appear- 
ance of handsome cartons is a prime desirability in 
almost all such shipments. For similar reasons special 
care must be taken, in nailing on the covers of such cases, 
to guard again nails entering within the case and per- 
forating or otherwise damaging the cartons with which 
they come in contact. 

Almost all goods ordinarily shipped in cartons are 
peculiarly the objects of solicitude on the part of pil- 
ferers, who prey on export shipments on dock and on 
board of steamers, in no matter what part of the world. 
Shoes, confectionery, foodstuffs — all these, and in gen- 
eral most cartoned goods, must be very thoroughly pro- 
tected by every known device against the danger of 
pilfering, and in this connection study should be made of 
the special chapter in this volume devoted to this subject. 

Export Packing of Shoes.— In the packing of leather 
shoes it is of prime importance to protect the goods 
against moisture, and this is commonly done by thor- 
oughly waterproofing the case and securing the goods 
against all possible contact with dampness. In certain 
cases, such, for example, as the export package of a well- 
known company to whom thanks are due for photographs 



552 EXPORT PACKING 

reproduced on page 550 the case may be tin or zinc lined, 
a practice that is very general with shipments going 
to South America. Furthermore, the usual requisites of 
stout cases is more than required in this case because of 
the danger of pilfering. 

This last point is extremely important in the case of 
shoes, for we have here an ideal class of merchandise for 
the pilferer. Of use to anybody in any country, easily 
concealed and transported, equally easily disposed of, 
every effort should be made to see that safety seals are 
placed on the cases and that the contents of the shipment 
are as fully disguised as possible. 

A large company, other than the one mentioned above, 
states : "As regards information relative to the way our 
shoes are packed, we beg to state that, first, we check the 
shoes on to our packing table prior to having them placed 
in the cases ; then, as they are placed in the case they are 
rechecked. This practically precludes mistakes in our 
count. 

"The cases are made of selected gum, free of knot 
holes or knots, having y 2 " sides, %" heads, and the 
heavier case is reenforced with %" strips 4" wide all 
around. The shoes themselves are packed in a waterproof 
liner made of two layers of heavy paper with a thin 
coating of waterproof substance between the layers. 
This paper comes in the shape of bags, which are fitted 
into the case, and the shoes are placed inside the bag. 
"When the required number of shoes are in the case, the 
bag is folded down on the top in such a way as to prevent 
against water seeping in through the openings. The lids 
of the cases are then nailed on securely with coated wire 
nails and strapped all around with %" metal strips, the 
ends of which are inserted through a patent seal, and a 
nail driven through that seal. We place no identification 
marks on our cases to show what is contained therein, nor 
does our name appear thereon in any place. We thus 
eliminate the feature of having the cases show that they 
contain shoes, and since we have followed this method 
our percentage of pilferage has materially decreased." 



EXPORT PACKING OF GOODS IN CARTONS 553 

A third large shoe exporter states: "In forwarding 
our shipments to foreign countries we have found in our 
experience that a number of different methods are re- 
quired, according to the point of destination. For in- 
stance, on shipments to the West Coast of South 
America the risk of theft and pilferage is very high, and 
shipments are, therefore, packed with the view to avoid 
this extra risk. As you no doubt know, most of the goods 
arriving at West Coast ports are lightered from the 
steamers, as wharfage facilities are few, and this process 
adds greatly to the chance of pilferage. For this reason 
our shipments to the West Coast are first packed in 
ordinary wooden cases such as are used for shipment in 
this country, and are then repacked in heavy %" stock 
wooden cases, which are ordinarily known as dry goods 
cases. These cases are strapped at both ends and sealed, 
and as an extra precaution a wire band and seal are 
placed around the center of the case. Each separate 
board is nailed individually ; also the strapping is nailed 
to each board. On shipments to the East Coast, the cases 
are lined in the usual manner with waterproof paper. 
The strapping and sealing are the same. This method 
we have also applied on our shipments going to the 
continent of Europe. 

"You are, no doubt, familiar with certain require- 
ments which call for packing out of the ordinary. We 
have been requested at times to wrap our wooden cases 
in burlap, which cannot be tampered with without show- 
ing traces. 

"Our patent leather shoes are generally packed in 
parchment paper, which is the best protection against 
the wearing off of the varnish used on the patent leather. 
However, on shipments to some of the Central American 
countries where the climate is damp, we use, in addition 
to the oiled paper, cotton-batting paper, which we have 
found gives good results in all cases.' ' 

A variation of the usual fashion in the packing of 
shoes for export is reported from Cuba, where certain 
manufacturers, probably by agreement with their whole- 



554 EXPORT PACKING 

sale customers on that island, are accustomed to packing 
12 single cartons of shoes in one large pasteboard or 
fibre carton, securely wrapped with paper, and tied, and 
labeled with description, number of pairs of each size, 
etc., in order that the wholesale distributor may easily 
reship small lots to his retail customers in the country. 
The cartons are of course enclosed in a suitable shipping 
case. 

As an instance of bad packing, a New York firm of 
foreign freight contractors tells of a shipment which it 
encountered, typical of many, which brought to light an 
appalling indifference to packing for export. The sh'p- 
ment in question consisted of some 1,500 cases of shoes, 
originating in Chicago and destined to a point in Rou- 
mania. The shoes were packed in cases made of lumber 
which was not any thicker than an ordinary egg case, and 
were only strapped with very thin wire. The shipment, 
upon arrival in New York, was naturally in very bad 
condition, practically every case having to be recoopered, 
involving considerable expense. This firm calls attention 
to the fact that in this particular instance the shipment 
was very poorly packed even for a domestic movement, 
and that if it had been allowed to proceed without recoop- 
ering, on the assumption that the steamship company 
would accept it in such a condition, the shoes would have 
arrived at destination in very bad shape indeed. 

Packing of Rubber Boots and Shoes.— A large manu- 
facturer of rubber footwear states: "Rubber footwear 
for domestic consumption is packed in cardboard boxes, 
usually 24 pairs to the case. For export we have been 
using a specially constructed case of 1" material, cleated, 
and with reenforced ends. We have never had trouble on 
our shipments that have been packed in the special ex- 
port cases. The standard domestic containers are very 
unsatisfactory. We also ship the goods in bulk, remov- 
ing the cardboard boxes wherever it is possible, which 
shows an economy of 40 per cent in the shipping space. 
Our trade is supplied with a list showing the cubic meas- 
urements, and the gross and net weights of the various 




Courtesy of Joseph Dixon Crucible Co. 

Case of Lead Pencils. 

In this instance the case contains a shipment of lead pencils all of the same 
grade and size. 




Courtesy of Ceo. H. Morrill Co. 
Packing of Printers ' Ink in Tubes. 

Collapsible tubes are placed in printed cartons and solidly packed with saw- 
dust. Four 14 lb. tube cartons are then placed in a large carton, making an 
attractive 1 lb. package of k tubes, each in its separate carton. 

555 




Courtesy of Geo. Borgfeldt & Co. 
Packing of Novelties and Toy Sewing Machines. 

(Left) Christmas tree ornaments in boxes, which are sectioned to prevent 
breakage. Boxes must be closely packed to prevent jostling. Oiled paper lining 
is used to prevent injury to painted decorations. (Right) Toy sewing machines 
are wrapped in paper, to prevent injury to the mechanism , excelsior is not used 
inside the carton, it is however placed between each two layers of boxes. 




Courtesy of Oeo. Borgfeldt & Co. 

Packing of Dolls. 

Dolls are easily broken. Each doll is tightly fitted into box with corrugated 
paper and excelsior, enough excelsior being used to giv'e spring should box be 
dropped. Boxes packed in even rows and spaces between well filled with 
excelsior. 

556 



EXPORT PACKING OF GOODS IN CARTONS 557 

rubber shoes packed under the two methods described. 
"We have simplified our replies to general inquiries 
so that it is covered in one paragraph, which reads as 
follows : 

24 pairs to case — women's 3K cubic feet 

24 " " " men's 5 

100 " bulk women's 5 " " 

100 " " men's 8 " " 



"The objection to packing most goods in bulk is due 
to the condition under which they arrive at destination. 
The Europeans have had sufficiently cheap labor in the 
past to pay particular attention to the finish of their 
goods, with the net result that American goods packed 
closely to conserve space almost invariably lay the manu- 
facturer open to a question as to the finish of his goods, 
due to the condition under which they arrive. 

" It is our experience that it is advisable to take addi- 
tional space and have the goods arrive at destination in 
the best manner possible, dividing the cost per case by 
the number of units contained therein. This shows only 
a small additional cost to have the goods in proper con- 
dition. It is our judgment that the American manufac- 
turer would do well to study first the condition in which 
his goods will arrive in the foreign market, and then the 
economy in space that it is possible to obtain when the 
goods are properly packed." 

Another large shipper of rubber footwear informs us 
that goods are shipped 24 pairs to the case, each pair in a 
carton, and wrapped in tissue. The lumber is %" white 
pine, and the effort is made to keep the case as light as 
possible. The cases are not sealed, and well-nailed straps 
have been found sufficient protection against pilfering, 
although every effort is made to keep identifying marks 
off the cases. Rubber boots are packed 12 pairs to the 
case, with the same carton and tissue covering as in the 
case of rubber shoes. All rubber goods go as measure- 
ment cargo. In the case of shipments to Great Britain it 
has been found unnecessary to strap cases, although ship- 



558 EXPORT PACKING 

ments are confined to one or two of the largest trans- 
Atlantic lines. 

Cereals in Cartons.— A large manufacturer and ship- 
per writes that cereals are exported both in cartons and 
in tins. In regard to former packing this manufacturer 
states: "Packed in shells or cartons, 7 15/16" x 4*4" x 
3%", made from .033 chipboard, and firmly glued on both 
ends. Wrappers are pasted or glued all over, making an 
air-tight package. The packages are shipped in nailed 
and wire-bound cases, 36 packages to the case, and weigh 
2 pounds each. The nailed case has %" sides, tops and 
bottoms, and y 2 " ends, each end having two outside 
cleats 2" x %", running the full depth of the ends. Wire- 
bound cases are made from 1%" hardwood, veneer, and 
are reenforced on sides with cleats measuring y± x 
15/16 ", which run full length and depth of side. There 
is also a batten 2" x %" down the center. The case has 
four 14-gauge wires running the long way of the case, and 
fastened with staples 3" apart. The same goods are 
shipped in 1-pound packages, 72 packages to the case, in 
the same way." 

Confectionery in Cartons.— A good deal of American 
confectionery of various descriptions is exported in car- 
tons, especially- to such nearby markets as the West 
Indies. No little discrimination seems, however, to be 
called for in determining upon carton shipments for such 
products. Unless cases are lined with tin and hermetic- 
ally sealed, it would seem doubtful that the confectionery 
in cartons would arrive in desirable, even in salable, 
condition in most foreign markets, above all when such 
shipments have to pass through hot, tropical or semi- 
tropical waters. Even if cartons are packed in her- 
metically sealed, tin-lined cases, still there is always to be 
remembered the possible deterioration of the confection- 
ery merely through the effects of heat, and this applies 
to American confectionery more than any other, because 
of the use by our manufacturers of cane sugar, or more 
often glucose, neither one of which will withstand heat 
as does the beet-root sugar usually employed by Euro- 



EXPORT PACKING OF GOODS IN CARTONS 559 

pean manufacturers of such products. The latter, it may 
be said, far more generally employ tins, and far more sel- 
dom utilize the carton, than do American manufacturers. 

An exporter of confectionery writes: " Half-pound 
cakes of Oriental chocolate are each wrapped in tin foil 
and a regular trade label, as used in the stores on this 
side of the water. They are packed in 7-pound cardboard 
boxes, and if necessary to make the cakes fit tightly, cor- 
rugated paper is laid between them and the sides of the 
box. Sixteen boxes are packed in each case, a strong 
wooden case being used, and the cases, except as noted 
below, are lined with waterproof paper. Net weight, 112 
pounds ; gross weight, about 140 pounds ; size, 2.10 cubic 
feet. 

"If the goods are being shipped to a very hot climate 
a layer of tin is used for lining instead of the waterproof 
paper. The tin is made to the inside measure of the 
packing case, and a tin cover is soldered on, so that it 
forms, to all intents and purposes, a tin inner case fitting 
close inside the wooden case. Cases are banded with two 
iron straps pulled tight and nailed." 

Sundry Cartoned Goods.— An example of the mixed 
packing of different kinds and sizes of goods in cartons 
may be noted in the accompanying reproduction of pho- 
tographs containing lead pencils (see pages 550, 555). 
It will be noted that in one instance pencils are all of one 
grade, and exactly fill the case, while the other case is not 
filled, and the open spaces have been stuffed with ex- 
celsior. 

An illustration of the packing of collapsible tubes 
which are used with so many different kinds of products, 
and enclosed in cartons, is to be noted in the photograph 
supplied by a large manufacturer of printers' ink which 
is reproduced on page 555, and in regard to which the 
manufacturer writes : "Ordinarily one-quarter and one- 
half pound lots of ink are packed in collapsible tubes. 
The tubes used are made of good quality burnished metal, 
and are filled on a special tube filling machine, after 
which the end is crimped over and the tube is labeled, 



560 EXPORT PACKING 

presenting the appearance as seen in photograph, where 
a tube is shown in the foreground. Each tube is then 
placed in a printed carton and the carton filled and 
solidly packed with sawdust, as indicated in the picture. 
Four of the one-quarter pound tube cartons are then 
placed in a large carton, making a very attractive one- 
pound package composed of four tubes, each in' its sep- 
arate carton. This carton is shown in photograph/ ' 
A description of the wooden cases employed by this par- 
ticular manufacturer is given under the head of printers - 
ink in the chapter devoted to the packing of tinned goods. 

Examples of novelties of various descriptions, toys, 
etc., shipped in cartons, and the packing for export be- 
lieved desirable in such instances, are to be observed in 
three photographs (see page 556). The shippers describe 
their packing of these cases for shipment in the following 
language: "The accompanying photograph shows the 
packing of a case of Christmas tree ornaments. It will be 
observed that the cartons are divided into sections, to 
minimize the risk of breakage. These cartons must be 
packed into the outer case just closely enough to prevent 
jostling, but equal care must be taken not to pack too 
tightly. Note the oil paper lining of the case, which is 
always used for export when anything is packed that may 
be subject to damage from moisture. 

"Another photograph illustrates the packing of a 
case of dolls, which are very breakable, being made of 
plaster pulp^a brittle composition containing plaster of 
Paris. Each doll is fitted tightly into its carton with cor- 
rugated paper and excelsior, so that it cannot move. 
Enough excelsior is used in each carton to give spring, 
should the case be dropped. The boxes are packed in 
even rows, the spaces between being well filled with ex- 
celsior. 

"The third photograph shows the packing of toy 
sewing machines, each in an individual carton, the toys 
being wrapped in paper. A thick layer of excelsior is 
placed between each layer of cartons, but no excelsior 
is used inside of the cartons themselves to- guard against 



EXPORT PACKING OF GOODS IN CARTONS 561 

dust injuring the mechanism of the toys. The tilting of 
the case, as shown in the photograph, should be noted.' ' 
This shipper states that nothing except dry goods is ever 
packed in his plant without tilting the case or barrel. 



CHAPTER XXI 
EXPORT SHIPMENTS IN BARRELS 

COMMODITIES shipped for export in barrels are 
almost limitless in variety and include some kinds 
of merchandise for which the use of barrels in 
domestic shipments by rail within our own borders would 
arouse no end of astonishment. Barreled goods, as re- 
lated to the problem of export packing, comprise not 
only liquids of every description, from alcohol to lubri- 
cating oils, commodities in powdered form, from flour 
to chemicals, and commodities in solid condition, such as 
rosin, but also include many forms of hardware prefer- 
ably shipped for export in barrels, to say nothing of such 
products as wire nails, glass, crockery and all sorts of 
products, from tobacco to sausage casings. 

There are certain quite obvious requirements apply- 
ing to the overseas transportation of barreled goods of 
any description, whether in tight barrels or slack barrels, 
or whether in tierces, half barrels, kegs or in pails or 
other packages to be classified in a general way under 
the heading of barrels. Such considerations include, for 
example, protection against leakage of liquids and pro- 
tection against siftinlg of powdered contents. Other 
things to be considered which may not at first im- 
mediately suggest themselves, include protection against 
pilfering of contents from barrels, for valuable contents 
may be pilfered from barrels as greedily as from cases, 
and even in shipments of such a commodity, apparently 
far from tempting to thieves, as sausage casings, com- 
plaints have been received from abroad of extensive pil- 
fering from the center of barrels. 

As in all export shipping, manufacturers or others 
who forward their goods in barrels, ought to study atten- 
tively conditions in the markets to which their goods are 

562 



EXPORT SHIPMENTS IN BARRELS 563 

despatched, as this may possibly affect the character of 
barrels to be shipped. For example, there are some for- 
eign countries in which barrels, when emptied of their 
original contents, are worth more locally than their 
original cost at point of shipment. Therefore, there is a 
great advantage in supplying sufficiently good barrels to 
ensure their arrival in good condition and without dam- 
age, in order that the buyers of the merchandise thus 
shipped may realize highest possible prices for the con- 
tainers, and thus be better pleased with the merchandise 
and with the services of the American concerns from 
whom purchases have been made. In the Amazon district 
of Brazil, for example, it has been said that oak barrels 
with hickory hoops are Worth twice as much as they cost 
in New York, while soft wood barrels with flat hoops, 
arriving with heads split, are worth nothing at all and 
more than once have caused rejection by the importer 
of an entire shipment. Parenthetically, it should be 
noted that some European barrels, particularly barrels 
from France, command considerably higher prices at 
second hand than do American barrels at second hand, 
because of their superior quality over American barrels. 
Furthermore, the protection afforded by hardwood bar- 
rels against damage, and particularly destruction by 
rats on shipboard or while lying exposed on wharves, is 
also and always a highly important consideration. 

Another illustration of the desirability of studying 
local conditions in markets to which barreled goods are 
shipped, is suggested by a report made a few years ago 
from one of the Central American republics that it is 
often advantageous to perforate the barrels and then fill 
up the holes soundly so as effectively to prevent the 
leakage of liquids or greases, because in some of the 
Latin American republics import tariff laws impose a 
duty on sound and water-tight barrels in addition to the 
duty on their contents, and the duty on the barrels them- 
selves may be saved if, nominally at least, the barrels 
have been spoiled by the perforations which have been 
suggested. However, this is a rather fine point which 



564 EXPORT PACKING 

requires some technical study because barreled goods 
are quite as often in Latin America charged import 
duties on the basis of gross weight. Such a considera- 
tion as this supplies another argument for the close and 
intimate consultation of manufacturer or exporter with 
local clients in each foreign market. 

Another recommendation which has been made by a 
New York export house shipping largely to the Far East 
is that in all shipments of oils or other liquids to tropical 
countries, or by steamships passing through unusually 
hot waters, considerable room should be left in barrels 
for the expansion of the liquids, which may be caused 
by the heat, as otherwise leakage is sure to occur and 
has frequently been experienced in the past. Complaints 
as to the leakage of liquids are by no means rare and will 
frequently appear in other paragraphs in this chapter. 
Some steamship companies, according to the New York 
exporter just quoted, have of late refused to accept dyes 
in barrels because of the heavy losses incurred from sift- 
ing and leakage and the damage done to neighboring 
cargo. It is said that the greatest number of complaints 
as to shipments in barrels come from defective "heading 
up," and that difficulties experienced are much more 
notable in barrels that have' not been completely finished 
in cooperages and made to be filled at the bung. 

Climatic conditions in the country to which a ship- 
ment may be destined, or seasonal conditions at time of 
shipment and at time of expected arrival of the goods 
abroad, may require consideration by exporters. 

Leakage of oils when shipped in the winter and the 
contents are congealed has been reported as only three- 
quarters of 1 per cent, whereas, in summer, leakage of 
the same oils ranges up to 1% per cent. In dry, hot 
weather the wood of the barrels dries out and iron hoops 
sometimes become loosened and even fall off. Facilities 
for loading, unloading and storage at port of shipment 
and port of discharge may enter into this question also, 
since it is clear that if barrels containing liquids are 
properly sheltered on wharves or in warehouses from the 



EXPORT SHIPMENTS IN BARRELS 565 

direct rays of a very hot sun considerable reduction in 
risk from leakage is likely to result. 

Considerable difference of opinion exists among ex- 
porters as to the desirability of barrels as export con- 
tainers. One important New York merchant expresses 
the opinion in a letter that although in principle barrels 
are poor containers, yet they are peculiarly adapted for 
the shipment of such articles as china and glassware, 
offering better protection for such contents than could 
be obtained from a case of the same weight and size. 
This exporter further remarks: "In packing articles in 
barrels, however, care should be taken to prevent sifting 
or leakage. Eeenforcing the heads, lining with water- 
proof paper (when dry contents are in question) and con- 
structing them with tongued and grooved staves assist 
in preventing sifting. Placing extra hoops on barrels 
containing liquids and reenforcing the heads are addi- 
tional ways of guarding against leakage. ' ' 

However, another New York export merchant argues 
strongly that the use of barrels should be discouraged 
whenever possible in export shipments, declaring that 
there is an immense waste of space in packing, and that 
meats, fruits, chemicals, in fact, all kinds of merchandise 
should be by preference otherwise packed than in barrels. 
This clearly is a problem which each manufacturer must 
study and determine for himself as affecting his indi- 
vidual products and the conditions surrounding his pack- 
ing and shipping. 

Illustrations of practice and policy in shipping for 
export in barrels will certainly be of interest and should 
offer many hints and suggestions to manufacturers. Cer- 
tain typical commodities may be selected in this connec- 
tion and the following include extracts from letters of 
manufacturers and shippers bearing on this subject. 

Packing House Products.— The great variety of prod- 
ucts produced and exported by large packing houses in 
Chicago and elsewhere in the United States, involves the 
use of all kinds of packages, among them barrels possibly 
taking first place. One of the principal American pack- 



566 EXPORT PACKING 

ing houses sends us a photograph (see cut page 567), and 
writes as follows regarding its own manufacture of the 
necessary containers of this description : 

"The millions of barrels, boxes, pails, tubs and other 
containers used by us annually in the shipment of packing 
house products come from two sources. Pails and tubs, 
some boxes and tin cans are manufactured by the com- 
pany. A goodly number of barrels, boxes and cans are 
purchased from outside sources. 

i i Many packing house products come under the head- 
ing of perishable goods, which makes it important that 
there be no unnecessary delays in shipping them. Fur- 
thermore, a great number of containers are required each 
year. In view of these two facts, it has been natural for 
this company to establish its own box, barrel, pail and 
tin can shops, because in so doing it does not have to 
depend exclusively upon outside sources of supply for 
containers. 

"An interesting feature of this story on containers 
for packing house products is to be found in connection 
with foreign shipments of goods — the types of containers 
and the way they are built. For instance, in taking care 
of the South American trade we ship from the United 
States a great many barrels in the form of shooks, these 
shooks being reassembled after they reach the various 
plants in the Latin American countries. By shipping the 
barrels in knocked-down form, a great deal of cargo space 
can be saved. By shipping the shooks instead of the fin- 
ished barrels, all available space in the cargo can be 
utilized. 

"White oak shooks, taking a 34" stave and holding 
around 54 gallons, are used in the South American trade, 
which required 150,000 to 200,000 barrels a year during 
the war. 

"As for the principal products put in barrels, among 
these may be mentioned lards, oleo oil, greases, fats, tal- 
lows, various kinds of meats, and fruit juices. 

"For shipping oleo oil and lard the tierces used are 
made from white or red oak, with 34" stave, 21" head, 




567 





Courtesy of Swift & Co. 
Tierces for Provisions. 
Blade to contain either pure lard, lard compounds or oils. Wood is carefully 
selected oak with 8 galvanized iron hoops, well driven and fastened. 




Courtesy of Swift & Co. 

Packing of Pickled Meats. 
Meats in brine are packed in barrels, half barrels, and tierces. Wood is care- 
fully selected. Hoops are galvanised iron protecting package on long journeys in 
tropical climates. 

568 






EXPORT SHIPMENTS IN BARRELS 569 

and six steel hoops. Their capacity is 50 to 52 gallons. 

"Thirty-gallon barrels are principally utilized for 
pork. These are constructed of ash, with 30" stave, 18" 
head and bound with six galvanized iron hoops. 

"In addition to these, half and quarter barrels, with 
a capacity of 100 and 50 pounds, respectively, are em- 
ployed. Before the war 250,000 half -barrels of spruce a 
year were used for export lard, a considerable amount 
of which went to Germany. 

"Mince meat is packed in 100 and 150-pound barrels, 
and in 50-pound tubs, which have inside dimensions of 
14%" at the top, 11%" at the bottom, and a depth 
of 11 3/16". 

"The shipments of casings require packages of 20 to 
150 pounds capacity, the larger ones being of white oak, 
while for the smaller container a good, tight, hardwood 
package is used. 

"All of the foregoing containers are in the class 
known as tight barrels. However, for the exporting of 
lard, glue, soap and similar products, containers known 
as slack barrels are also used. These barrels come in two 
sizes, having 30" and 34" staves, the larger ones being 
employed for glue. About 150,000 barrels of each size 
were pressed into service last year. 

"These slack barrels are built in our own cooper shop 
at the Union Stock Yards in Chicago. About 250,000 lard 
half-barrels are also turned out there annually. Slack 
cooper shops are operated at most of the other packing 
plants of the company, stock for these containers being 
bought on the open markets and practically the entire 
output of a large Minnesota company is required each 
year. This company manufactures pails and tubs, draw- 
ing on the basswood, birch, pine and other Minnesota 
woods for the material. In these containers are shipped 
lard, pork, casings, dressed meat, pigs' feet, soap, jelly, 
sausage, tripe and similar packinghouse products. Lard 
pails holding from one to fifty pounds are manufactured 
in the Chicago plant having a capacity of 60,000 of these 
pails a day. ' ' 



570 EXPORT PACKING 

Another of our largest shippers of provisions, in 
writing of the different packages in which the company's 
products are exported, calls attention to cut on page 568, 
representing a tierce or large barrel in which pure lard, 
lard compound or oils may be shipped. This is made of 
carefully selected oak, is free as possible from seed or 
worm holes, and is protected at the ends with galvanized 
iron hoops well driven and fastened so that they cannot 
slip with the shrinkage of the package, which they are 
quite certain to do if exposed to dry heat, with consequent 
serious leakage. 

Barrels used in the exporting of pickled meat, that is, 
meat in brine, include half barrels, barrels and tierces, 
are illustrated in cut on page 568. The wood is carefully 
selected and the hoops are of galvanized iron to secure 
protection in long journeys to interior tropical countries 
of South America. 

Some European importers have complained of certain 
American shipments of lard in wooden pails where the 
rims of the pails project and in consequence rub against 
each other and covers are frequently loosened or even 
lost. It is recommended that the practice of the larger 
packers be followed, that is, that the cover be nailed 
inside the outer rim of the pail. 

Oils in Barrels.— A prominent exporter of cotton oil 
writes: "All of our oils for export are packed in hard- 
wood iron-bound barrels. In normal times we are able 
to guarantee out-turn weights within 1 per cent, and could 
do it today were it not for the fact that owing to conges- 
tion in certain European ports ships have been held up 
indefinitely or the oil allowed to lie on the wharves for 
weeks at a time before consignee could take possession 
of same. This has been a war condition which has caused 
us to withdraw any guarantee of out-turn weights, but 
with the return to normal conditions we are of the opinion 
that by using the same care that we have heretofore in 
the selection of our cooperage that we can again guaran- 
tee out-turn weights. Very much depends on the manner 
of stowing the oil on the ship, and when we have a ship- 



EXPORT SHIPMENTS IN BARRELS 571 

ment of any importance we endeavor to have one of our 
men supervise, for our own protection, the stowing of 
the oil." 

Another exporter of cotton oil says that : ' ' The large 
percentage of cotton seed oil shipped abroad goes in 
strong, hardwood, export barrels which carry the oil 
safely to destination ; and, as this package has been used 
with satisfaction to all concerned for many years, there 
remains very little to be said about it. These barrels are 
made of thoroughly seasoned white oak, iron bound, and 
contain about 375 to 380 pounds net, weight about 450 
pounds gross, and measure about 12 cubic feet. 

' ' We can also ship in any size barrel required or can 
ship the oil in tins of any style or size either plain or 
decorated. We also put our oil up in the French style 
of bottles, quarts, pints, and half pints, packing any num- 
ber to the case that may be required." 

European importers of American cotton seed oil have 
recommended that care be taken to prevent too much 
absorption of the oil by the barrels, through leaving con- 
tents too long in the containers or through the use of 
shooks which are too new or of too soft wood. Top covers 
of barrels containing all sorts of oils, cotton seed oil as 
well as mineral oil, sometimes dry up and crack during 
the voyage, and leakage results. 

A shipper writes in regard to sundry oils: "Our 
standard package for shipments of coal tar oils and ben- 
zol is a 110-gallon drum, weighing about 175 pounds for 
the package itself and measuring 31" maximum diameter 
by 41" maximum height. In special cases we sometimes 
ship wooden barrels and once in a great while we employ 
two 5-gallon cans to a special export case, but in general, 
as above stated, the standard 110-gallon size drum is the 
package we employ on such shipments." 

Flour in Barrels.— Flour exported in barrels is 
shipped in a variety of very different containers depend- 
ing upon the market of destination, but even more upon 
the wishes and instructions of the customers. The 
various barrels used by one of the largest exporters of 



572 EXPORT PACKING 

flour, as shown in cut on page 535, include the following : 
Half barrels with four wire and four flat hoops; half 
barrels with ten flat hoops ; half barrels with ten hickory 
hoops. Barrels are made with twelve flat hoops, with 
four wire and four flat hoops, or sometimes with twelve 
hickory hoops. This flour exporter declares that he has 
no knowledge of why his customers in some instances 
prefer one kind of barrel and in other instances another 
kind. He follows instructions in regard to all the kinds 
of barrels enumerated as suitable for export purposes. 
However, it is to be noted that some of the barrels shown 
in the photograph supplied (see page 535) have re- 
enforced heads, others no such additional protection. If 
that protection is required in one instance, it would seem 
that it might be desirable in all instances. 

A large New York concern shipping flour chiefly to 
Europe urges that all flour barrels be lined with paper 
and have a double lining at top and bottom. Only in this 
way, it is stated, can satisfactory shipment be ensured. 

Portland Cement in Barrels.— The American practice 
in exporting cement is to ship in barrels, although the 
common British practice involves almost exclusively 
shipments in bags, and it is worthy of note that the Brit- 
ish cement enjoys a tremendous sale throughout the 
world, exceeding the volume of American exports of 
these products many times over. This fact certainly does 
not arise from any considerably cheaper first costs of 
cement in the United Kingdom than in the United States, 
and what part of it may be due to superior British ship- 
ping facilities or what effect on delivery costs shipment 
in bags rather than barrels may have, are questions which 
American shippers might study with advantage. It is a 
well known fact that superior shipping facilities from 
Great Britain, at least as they existed prior to the great 
war, enabled British exporters frequently to forward 
cement at insignificant freight costs, when it was possible 
to find steamers for a desired destination which happened 
to be short of cargo and were willing to take cement in 
bags as ballast at very low freight rates. 




Courtesy of Edison Portland Cement Co. 

Method of Packing Cement. 

Special export package devised by this firm. Xote that staves of barrel have 
been removed and cement is standing without support. Dead air space is entirely 
eliminated. 




Courtesy of Lehigh Portland Cement Co. 

' Barrels Used for Cement Shipment. 

(Left) Staves are tongued and grooved. Barrels reenforced with steel hoops 
and lined with waterproof paper. (Right) Xote method of reenforcing head of 
barrel. 



573 




Courtesy of Atlas Portland Cement Co. 

Construction of Barrel. 

Shows use of barrel-raising machine. Staves are set up in circular form 
and head placed in form at bottom. Top is drawn together by wire frame and 
head hoops adjusted, then barrel is placed over heater. 




Courtesy of Atlas Portland Cement Co. 
Method of Tightening Barrel Hoops. 
Shows trussing machine which automatically drives hoops into place and 
tightens barrel. 

574 



EXPORT SHIPMENTS IN BARRELS 575 

The reports of the Department of Commerce, of the 
United States, show that in 1919 there were exported 
some 2,463,689 barrels of hydraulic cement valued at 
$7,516,019. At present, exports of American hydraulic 
cement are chiefly to Latin America, but the writer knows 
of certain aggressive plans now being carried out by 
manufacturers that will doubtless increase very mate- 
rially the export volume of this commodity. 

A cement manufacturing company, prominent in ex- 
port shipping, sends a photograph of a special export 
package which it has devised for its own shipments (see 
cut page 573) and calls attention to the fact that the 
staves of the barrel have been removed and that the 
cement is standing without support, this being due to the 
fact that dead air space has been entirely eliminated, re- 
ducing the possibility of breakage of the barrel to a 
minimum. The cement on the top of the barrel has been 
loosened with the finger which shows that this process 
of compacting does not cause the cement to cake. 

Before the package illustrated was determined on a 
most elaborate series of experiments were made with 
barrels filled with cement, and these experiments covered 
the travels of the barrel, from the time it left the mill 
until the cement was removed for construction purposes 
in some distant country. All the shocks, strains, drops, 
vibrations, knocks and jolts of loading into the freight 
car; the handling incident to lightering, including the 
severe drop from the sling to the vessel's hold; the move- 
ment of the barrels during the ocean voyage as well as 
the unloading at the port of destination and transporta- 
tion from that point, were carefully investigated. 

From the correspondence in the above case, it is evi- 
dent that the method of compressed packing followed has 
produced satisfactory results. However, other prom- 
inent shippers and manufacturers of cement are satisfied 
to send their goods abroad by filling the barrels in the 
usual way, merely tapping the barrel in order to settle 
the contents. This method seems to give equally satis- 
factory results. 



576 EXPORT PACKING 

Another large company writes : ' i We believe we have 
perfected a barrel which assures, under normal condi- 
tions, safe transportation to destination. 

"We have erected, solely for the benefit of our foreign 
trade, our own cooperage plant which is equipped with 
the most efficient machinery made for the manufacture of 
cement barrels. By this process the staves are tongued 
and grooved and the barrels heavily reenf orced with steel 
hoops, while additional reinforcements are provided for 
the head. Every barrel is carefully lined with water- 
proof paper so that the cement is protected against any 
possible damage from moisture while in transit. (See 
cuts page 573.) 

' ' In shipping Portland cement you can readily under- 
stand the necessity for perfect packing. Cement is 
ground so fine that a minimum of 78 per cent must go 
through a 200-mesh screen, with 40,000 holes to the 
square inch. This makes a product almost finer than 
water and unless our barrels are in good shape, it would 
naturally mean sifting, breaking and a dissatisfied cus- 
tomer at the other end. 

"We purchase sawed oak staves one-half inch thick, 
and prior to their entering the cooperage they are kiln 
dried. The duration of drying is entirely dependent upon 
the condition of the staves at the time they are being 
prepared for use. After leaving the kiln the staves are 
carefully inspected and only such material as passes a 
most rigid inspection enters the cooperage. These staves 
are then put through the various machines, first cutting 
to lengths, second slotting the ends to provide for the 
barrel heads, trimming the edges, placing tongues and 
grooves along the edge of each stave, etc. 

"We purchase 15%" yellow pine heads one-half inch 
thick, cut and beveled ready for use. Our hoop material 
is received in rolls and at our own cooperage the material 
is cut to lengths, punched, riveted and stretched to con- 
form to the bilge of the barrel. 

"The staves are set up in a form around the barrel 
bottom and are drawn together by means of a cable after 



EXPORT SHIPMENTS IN BARRELS 577 

which temporary hoops are placed over each end. The 
barrels are then placed over a slow coal fire heating drum 
which gives their permanent shape. From the drums the 
barrels go to the heading machine where the heads are 
placed. The permanent hoops follow and are driven into 
place by machine, right after which the barrels are deliv- 
ered to the nailing machine where the hoops are secured 
in position. The finished barrels then go to the labeling 
and stenciling department after careful inspection, and 
are then delivered to the filling department where the 
head is removed, the barrel lined with a glazed water- 
proof paper, filled and reheaded. 

"This is, of course, a brief description, but gives the 
main processes entered into in our cooperage plant where 
we have a capacity of 5,000 barrels a day." 

A third large exporter sends photographs (see pages 
574, 579), and writes: "In the manufacture of barrels 
for our cement there are used from 16 to 18 wooden 
staves, depending upon the width, of one-half inch thick- 
ness, heading 16" in diameter, and all barrels are hooped 
with four steel hoops. The heads are reenf orced by head 
stifTeners, or what are known as export strips. 

"In the manufacture of these barrels, the staves, 
when received in carload lots, are placed in large dryers 
and thoroughly dried. This requires from several days 
to a week, depending on the condition of the staves when 
received. 

"After drying, all staves are taken to the cooper 
shops and put through crozing machines which chamfer 
the ends and cut the grooves which hold the heads in 
place. They are then delivered to the setting up or 
raising machines, where they are made up in barrel shape 
in the following manner : 

"The staves are set up in a circular form and a head 
is placed in the form at the bottom. The top is then 
drawn together by means of a wire frame and the head 
hoops placed around it, after which the barrel is placed 
over a heater which keeps the barrel in shape and helps 
to further dry it. 



578 EXPORT PACKING 

"From the heater, the barrels are sent to the tappers 
who slip two bilge hoops thereon. These tappers also 
examine the barrels to see if there are any broken staves, 
knot holes or other defects, and if any are detected the 
barrels are returned to the setting up machines for 
replacement. 

"After inspection the barrels are run through the 
trussing machines, where the hoops are automatically 
driven in place, and the barrel is made tight. Here again 
any barrels that develop any defects are thrown out. 

"Beyond this machine are the trimmers who place 
the export strip on the outside of the end of the barrel 
which is headed. This export strip is nailed in place and 
further strengthened by a piece of angle iron on each 
end which extends over the edge and is thoroughly nailed. 

"In this condition the barrels are transferred to the 
packing houses to be filled with cement, after which the 
second head is put in place and another export strip 
fastened in a similar manner to the one previously put 
on. Here also head liners are nailed in place and all 
marking for shipment is done. Our standard barrels are 
absolutely uniform in Size and the quality is as near per- 
fect as is possible to make them, rigid inspection being 
enforced at all times. " 

Iron and Steel Products in Barrels and Kegs.— A 
typical example of export shipment of iron and steel 
products is found in the large foreign business which 
manufacturers of wire nails enjoy. A large shipper 
states : "We use a lining of heavy waterproof tar paper 
which protects the nails from moisture. We put a steel 
cleat on the top and bottom of the keg. This makes a 
very substantial packing and the complaints of broken 
packages are nil." (See cut page 579.) 

A house making a specialty of the manufacture of 
wire products gives the following data in reference to its 
export shipment: Steel wire nails are packed in strong 
wooden kegs lined with pitch paper and bound securely 
with special steel hoops. All kegs have steel cleats on 
the ends as an additional protection against damage by 




Courtesy of Atlas Portland Cement Co. 

Completed Cement Barrel. 

Constructed of 16 to 18 wooden stares, %" thick, heading 16" in diameter. 
All barrels arc rcenforced with ' f steel hoops, and head stiffeners. 




Courtesy oj Pittsburgh Steel Co. 

Packing of Wire Nails. 

Steel wire nails arc packed in strong wooden kegs lined with pitch paper and 
bound securely with special steel hoops. Kegs hare steel cleats on ends a* 
additional protection against damage by rough handling during transhipment. 

579 




Courtesy of Col. J. N. Wolfson. 
Kesults of Poor Packing. 

Kegs containing bolts and nuts weighing two to three pounds each, the bands 
of the kegs being missing on arrival at Manila. 




Courtesy of E. R. Squibb and Sons. 
Drugs and Chemicals in Barrels. 

An export drum, light in weight but very firm, containing 100 lbs. of boric 
acid powder. Note strong paper lining. 



580 



EXPORT SHIPMENTS IN BARRELS 581 

rough handling during transhipment. The kegs contain 
nails usually weighing 100 pounds, 112 pounds and 133y s 
pounds net. Nails are also furnished in kegs weighing 
from 45 to 99 pounds net, or in cardboard lined jute can- 
vas bags weighing 56 pounds or 112 pounds each, gross 
^weight. However, kegs and bags of special weight can 
also be furnished. 

Blued lath nails are packed in kegs which are care- 
fully lined with special antiseptic paper. This insures 
the receipt of the nails by the consumer in the same per- 
fectly sanitary condition in which these sterilized nails 
leave the mills. Lathers and others who carry nails in 
their mouths are thus protected, as the nails are kept free 
from all injurious substances from the moment of their 
complete sterilization until the keg is opened by the 
consumer. 

Complaints of foreign buyers of American wire nails 
are chiefly directed against the use of kegs of too light 
weight, which sometimes burst in transit; and perhaps 
criticism is even more frequent of the insecurity of the 
fastening of the heads of the kegs which are quite often 
broken. 

A prominent manufacturer of chain always ships his 
products up to 1-inch in heavy oil barrels well coopered. 
Another manufacturer, when shipping in barrels, always 
lines them with waterproof paper and sprinkles over the 
chain a non-hyclrating product in order to prevent rust in 
transit. When heavy commodity like chain is shipped in 
barrels, care should be taken to use small sizes of barrels 
when shipping to the West Coast of South America or 
other points where landing facilities are not of the best. 

Wire finer than No. 30 gauge, tinned wire, lacquer 
finish or light coppered and annealed wire are usually 
packed in strong barrels made from gum staves, reen- 
forced with wire hoops and special cleats on each head 
for additional protection. The barrels are lined with 
heavy tarred paper; then strong packing or kraft paper, 
each coil of wire being paper wrapped. 

Merchandise to the value of $25,000 to $30,000 was 



582 EXPORT PACKING 

recently reported as lying unclaimed in the custom house 
at Manila because arriving without means of identifica- 
tion owing to the mutilation or destruction of frail con- 
tainers. Note in the accompanying photograph (page 
580) several kegs which contain bolts and nuts weighing 
two to three pounds each, bands of the kegs being missing, 
and the heads broken. 

A large New York exporter shipping to the Dutch 
East Indies comments on shipments of bolts, nuts and 
rivets in barrels which are too light for their contents. 
He believes that this sort of merchandise should be 
shipped in packages weighing not more than 200 pounds, 
and in barrels, because of the great extra charge for 
shipments in boxes. 

A New York firm shipping to Japan complains that 
shipments of box strapping have been received packed 
600 pounds in a light sugar barrel. This firm states 
that it is hardly possible to roll a sugar barrel containing 
this weight of steel across a room without practically 
destroying the container. It is easy to imagine, there- 
fore, the condition of such a shipment after being handled 
three or four times, particularly in the loading slings of 
an ocean carrier. Only the heaviest hardwood barrels are 
strong enough for 600 pounds of contents. 

An exporter gives the following details of his ship- 
ments : u We make large quantities of spring steel which 
we furnish in coils wound ribbon fashion, each coil weigh- 
ing approximately 60 to 80 pounds. This material is 
oiled, wrapped in paper and then packed in oil barrels, 
as we have found that oil barrels make the best package 
for export ; for a box, no matter how strongly it is reen- 
f orced, if dropped from a wagon on the corner, will come 
apart. Furthermore, a box is frequently made of green 
wood and when put into the hold of the vessel becomes 
damp and often rusts the steel, whereas the oil barrels 
are made of heavy oak, properly dried and seasoned, and 
on account of having contained oil are more nearly rust- 
proof than any package we know of and they are further- 
more very strong. We can pack in each barrel about a 



EXPORT SHIPMENTS IN BARRELS 583 

thousand pounds and the barrel can be rolled and there- 
fore handled much easier than a box weighing consider- 
ably less." 

In connection with shipments of such commodities, the 
following specifications issued by the General Engineer 
Depot of the United States Army are to be noted: 
"Hardware, nails, bolts, etc., should be packed in small 
cases or kegs made of first class material with heads 
reenforced by double heads, flush with the chime, with 
grain in the heads at right angles, well nailed together, 
banded with not less than four straps %"x .015 inch, se- 
cured in place by removing the two outer hoops, drawing 
the straps down and fastening them beyond the two 
hoops, after which the two hoops are replaced and se- 
cured in position. 

"Alternatively, the heads shall be secured by small 
strips of wood around the edge, called 'head lining, ' a 
steel cleat, meeting the approval of the Depot, crossing 
the grain of the head and supporting it, such cleat to 
have ends extending under the end band and well down 
the sides and well secured. ' ' 

"Where practicable the weight of the keg and its con- 
tents shall be under 125 pounds. 

"For steel products, oil barrels, or equal, shall be 
used. 

"Wood filling will fill the end level with the chime and 
support it, its direction shall be across the board of the 
head. Inside the head a second head shall be placed, 1%" 
thick, its boards extending at right angles to the boards 
of the head. The heads shall be carefully secured to the 
sides, at least three bands 1" x .030 inch will cross the 
head and be secured under two hoops at each end and to 
the sides. 

Sundry Products in Barrels.— Manufacturers of drugs 
and chemicals ship such powdered materials as boric acid 
in light but very strong export drums, so-called, which 
are really straight-sided barrels. In such cases a strong 
paper lining is used, as illustrated in photograph repro- 
duced on page 580. 



584 EXPORT PACKING 

Other chemicals shipped in barrels include, for ex- 
ample, acetic acid, shipped in barrels usually weighing 
about 490 pounds gross, 78 pounds tare, 412 pounds net, 
measurements being 21%" head, 25" bilge and 34" height. 

Soda ash is packed in barrels having elm and gum 
staves, hardwood heads, and steel and iron hoops, lined 
with crinkly paper bags with heads reenf orced by a strip 
of hard pine across the heads and strapped on with steel 
straps. It is also sometimes shipped in bags. 

All dry acids, aniline dyes, potash and, in general, 
chemicals in the dry state when shipped in barrels or 
casks, should be protected by linings of strong tough 
paper. 

What are sometimes called rough products shipped 
in barrels include glucose, where expansion of the con- 
tents and consequent leakage is to be guarded against by 
especially strong hoops. Rosin barrels ought to be 
stronger than they sometimes are and special attention 
given to the heading. Old barrels ought not to be used 
for rosin and some attention ought to be paid to the use 
of lighter barrels than those sometimes employed, in view 
of complaints received of excessive tare on this American 
product in comparison with rosin received from other 
sources. Complaint is also made of the shipment of 
American plaster to Australia, the barrels often not being 
sufficiently strong and arriving in bad condition. In ship- 
ments of tobacco it has been observed that the wood 
employed was hastily dried, making it quite brittle, 
and as the contents are heavy it is not surprising that 
barrels frequently reach destinations in damaged con- 
dition. More hoops and of a better grade may profitably 
be employed and special attention given to the heading 
up of the barrels. 

Cut glass is usually packed in barrels because it is so 
heavy. To contain the contents of a barrel weighing 26 
pounds a box weighing about 60 pounds is necessary. 
Furthermore, a manufacturer argues, the danger of 
breakage is less when barrels are used because they are 
easier to handle, and because if dropped there is only one 




Courtesy of Geo. Borgfeldt & Co. 
Method of Packing Cut Glass. 

Packed in barrels because of its weight. Danger of breakage is less than if 
packed in case since if barrel is dropped there is only point of contact with 
ground. Barrels are tipped for ease in packing by tilting in box containing 
slanting board as rest. 




Courtesy of Joseph Dixon Crucible Co: 

Packing of Flake Graphite. 

Barrels are first lined with double paper lining, after which graphite is put 
in and paper folded over top. Top of barrel is put on and double cross heads 
as shown are nailed on both top and bottom. Straps of barrel hoop iron are 
bound around barrel and over cross heads. 

585 




Courtesy of Joseph Dixon Crucible Co. 
Packing of Graphite Crucibles. 

Nested in thick cushions of oat straw, which possesses maximum spring. 
Straw is carefully tamped down. 




Courtesy of Joseph Dixon, Crucible Co. 
Packing of Graphite Facings. 

The general method of packing is similar to that used in packing flake 
graphite. 



586 



EXPORT SHIPMENTS IN BARRELS 587 

point of contact with the ground instead of many. For 
ease in packing, barrels are tilted into a box containing a 
slanting board, which acts as a rest, as illustrated in 
photograph on page 585. 

It is needless to remark that the very greatest care 
should be taken in packing any kind of glassware to see 
that hay, straw or other packing materials perfectly sepa- 
rate each article and that a heavy cushion of such mate- 
rials protects the contents from sides and heads of the 
barrels. China and crockery may be wrapped in tissue 
paper before being packed and, if very delicate, in cor- 
rugated paper sleeves before being imbedded in the 
cushioning material in barrels. In this general regard 
much fuller information will be found in the special chap- 
ter in this volume devoted to the packing of glass and 
fragile goods in general. 

Incandescent electric lamps have been shipped by 
Dutch manufacturers in hogsheads containing from 400 
to 500 lamps each. These were packed as follows : First 
a layer of straw was placed on the bottom of the cask; 
the lamps, enclosed in a corrugated sleeve and a paper 
wrapper, were placed on end; over them a light layer of 
straw and a corrugated board, then another layer of 
straw, another layer of lamps, and so on, the sides of the 
casks being lightly lined. In addition to the interior 
packing, a twisted straw rope was placed on each end of 
the cask to serve as a buffer and absorb shocks. The 
advantage of packing in hogsheads is believed to consist 
in the saving of considerable freight charges when large 
quantities are shipped, although it is confessed that 
Dutch packing is not so advantageous as American pack- 
ing for rehandling and distributing to dealers in other 
countries. 

A domestic practice which ought not to be carried into 
the export trade is found in the practices of some manu- 
facturers of leather counters or stiffenings for shoes, 
which are shipped in barrels with one head only, the 
other being merely covered by a single or possibly a 
double thickness of burlap. This is not a satisfactory 



588 EXPORT PACKING 

method of shipping any products whatsoever by ocean 
steamship to foreign countries. There is the greatest 
danger of the burlap top being torn and contents being 
lost. 

A large manufacturer of graphite products submits 
photographs showing packing in barrels which appear 
on pages 585, 586. One of these is a barrel containing 
flake graphite. The barrel is first lined with double 
paper lining, the graphite put in and paper folded over 
the top of the contents; the barrel is reenforced with 
double cross-heads, nailed top and bottom, over which 
and around the barrel extend straps of hoop iron. An- 
other photograph shows graphite crucibles packed in 
hogsheads, very carefully nested in thick cushions of 
oat straw, which is found to have more spring in it and 
to afford much better protection against breakage. This 
straw packing is tamped down and made very solid. Yet 
another photograph supplied by this manufacturer shows 
a barrel containing graphite facings. It is double lined 
with paper and the heads are protected with double cross- 
heads reenforced with strap iron. 

Specifications for Barrel Containers.— The following 
regulations prescribed by the Interstate Commerce Com- 
mission for shipments in bulk in wooden barrels, half 
barrels and kegs, while designed to apply to domestic 
shipments of inflammable liquids, may yet be recom- 
mended as generally desirable practice for all kinds of 
liquids for export shipments: 

1 i Material from which the barrel, half barrel, or keg 
is constructed must be oak, or other suitable hardwood, 
thoroughly kiln dried ; provided that kegs of a capacity 
not greater than 18 gallons may be constructed of soft 
wood if the thickness of staves and heads is one-eighth 
of an inch greater than that required for the oak kegs. 

"The staves and heads must be not less than the fol- 
lowing thickness when the barrel, half barrel, or keg is 
finished : 

"For barrels (capacity over 32 gallons and not over 
55 gallons), 11/16 inch. 



EXPORT SHIPMENTS IN BARRELS 589 

"For half barrels and kegs (capacity over 18 gallons 
and not over 32 gallons), % inch. 

"For kegs (capacity 5 gallons and not over 18 gal- 
lons), 9/16 inch. 

"For kegs (capacity under 5 gallons), y 2 inch. 

"The hoops must not be less in number nor smaller in 
size than the following: For barrels (capacity over 32 
gallons and not over 55 gallons), six hoops : Head hoops, 
1 11/16 inches by 17 gauge ; quarter hoops, 1 7/16 inches 
by 18 gauge ; bilge hoops, 1 11/16 inches by 17 gauge. 

"For half barrels and kegs (capacity over 18 gallons 
and not over 32 gallons), six hoops: Head hoops, 1% 
inches by 19 gauge ; other hoops, l 1 /^ inches by 19 gauge. 

"For kegs (capacity 5 gallons and not over 18 gal- 
lons), six hoops: Head hoops, 1% inches by 19 gauge; 
other hoops, 1% inches by 19 gauge. 

"For kegs (capacity under 5 gallons), four hoops: 
Head hoops, 1 inch by 20 gauge ; other hoops, % inch by 
21 gauge. 

"Bungholes and other openings must be provided 
with secure closing devices that will not permit leakage 
through them. Compressed, tapered wooden bungs must 
be covered with a suitable coating and must have a driv- 
ing fit into a tapered hole. They should be soaked in hot 
water for about one minute before driving into the 
bunghole. 

"The barrels, half barrels and kegs must be coated 
on the inside with glue, asphaltum, or other coating suit- 
able to prevention of leakage of the contents. When 
glued, there must be used at least two coats of good com- 
mercial glue so as to insure a uniform covering of the 
inside surface and averaging in total at least one-half 
pound to each barrel, and for half barrels and kegs an 
amount proportional to their inside surfaces. 

"Barrels, half barrels and kegs which have been used 
at least once must be thoroughly recoopered when neces- 
sary, and must be reglued with at least one coat of glue 
before each refilling. Badly bulged or warped heads 
must be replaced. 



590 EXPORT PACKING 

1 l All slack barrels, half barrels, and kegs are divided 
into classes limited both as to capacity and weight of 
contents as follows : 

" Class A. Capacity not over 10 gallons, and to con- 
tain not over 100 pounds net weight. 

' ' Class B. Capacity not more than 17 gallons, and to 
contain not over 150 pounds net weight. The average 
container of this class is the ordinary 12% by 18 inches 
keg. 

" Class C. Capacity not more than 25 gallons, and to 
contain not over 200 pounds net weight. The average 
container of this class is the ordinary half flour barrel, 
13y 2 by 24 inches. 

1 i Class D. Capacity not more than 35 gallons, and to 
contain not over 400 pounds net weight. The average 
container of this class is the ordinary flour barrel, 17% 
by 28 inches. 

" Class E. Capacity not more than 45 gallons, and to 
contain not over 600 pounds net weight. The average 
container of this class is the ordinary sugar barrel, 19% 
by 30 inches. 

I i Class F. Capacity not more than 55 gallons, and to 
contain not over 750 pounds net weight. The average 
container of this class is practically the ordinary oil bar- 
rel, 20% by 34 inches. 

"The material from which the barrels, half barrels, 
and kegs are constructed must be of good hardwood 
(except when specifically provided otherwise), thoroughly 
kiln dried, and must be free from knots. 

' ' The staves must be not less than the following thick- 
ness: Hardwood — Classes A, B and C, six staves to 2 
inches (cut or sawed) ; Classes D and E, % inch each 
(cut) or five staves to 1% inches (sawed) ; Class F, 7/16 
inch. 

II Softwood— Classes A and B, 7/16 inch; Classes C, D, 
E and F, softwood not allowed. 

"The heads must be not less than the following thick- 
ness : Oak, beech, maple, and red gum, 7/16 inch for all 
classes; basswood, cottonwood, tupelo gum, and other 



EXPORT SHIPMENTS IN BARBELS 591 

similar woods, y 2 inch for all classes. Softwood: 9/16 
inch for classes A and B. Softwood not allowed for 
heads of classes C, D, E and F. The heads of classes D, 
E and F must be cleated or battened across the cants 
with cleats not less than 4 by % inch. 

"The hoops shall not be less in number than the fol- 
lowing. Wooden hoops : six hoops for classes A and B ; 
eight hoops for classes C and D ; twelve hoops for classes 
E and F. Steel hoops: four hoops for classes A, B, C 
and D ; six hoops for classes E and F. The hoops shall 
not be smaller in size than the following: Wooden hoops 
— thickness 5/16 to 3/16 inch and width 1% inches, inside 
measurement, for all classes. Steel hoops — For classes 
A and B, head hoops 1% inches by 23 gauge ; bilge hoops 
1% inches by 23 gauge ; for classes C and D, head hoops, 
1% inches by 21 gauge; bilge hoops 1% inches by 23 
gauge; for classes E and F, head hoops 1% inches by 
21 gauge; bilge hoops 1% inches by 23 gauge; quarter 
hoops, 1% inches by 23 gauge. Gauge mentioned refers 
to United States standard. 

"If desired, half of the wooden hoops may be replaced 
by steel wire hoops, the wire to be directly under the 
wooden hoops (between the hoop and the bilge) and to 
be not less than No. 11 gauge for classes A, B, C and D, 
and not less than No. 9 for classes E and F. 

"If desired, the standard wooden hoops may be 
replaced by oval bark hoops (so-called half-round), three 
circumferences of which will be required to take the place 
of one standard hoop. 

"If the Brainerd steel hoop is used, the rolled edge 
shall be included in measuring the width of the hoops. 

"All steel hoops must be nailed or bradded in place, 
except wire hoops, which must be stapled, and all wooden 
hoops must be nailed or stapled in place with at least 
four nails, brads, or staples in classes A, B, C and D, and 
six nails, brads, or staples in classes E and F. 

"The ends of wooden hoops must be joined with at 
least one staple clinched on the outside and with at least 
two additional nails or staples clinched on the inside. 



592 EXPORT PACKING 

"Both heads must be headed up in the usual manner 
before shipment and must not be closed by gunny sacking, 
boarding, or other like methods. 

"The heads must fit into a croze or notch in the staves 
and in addition there must be an outer lining hoop to hold 
the heads in place. These lining hoops must extend en- 
tirely around the inside of the chime and must be held in 
place by nails at intervals of about 5 inches. 

"For paper bags, used as inner containers for kegs, 
the paper must be crimped or creped parallel to the axis 
of the bag. The crimping must be such that the crimped 
paper will stretch at least 25 per cent of the original 
length without tearing. 

* * The crimped paper must have a tensile strength not 
less than 32 pounds parallel to the crimp, and not less 
than 28 pounds across the crimp. These tests to be made 
on strips 3 inches long and 1 inch wide. 

' l The crimped paper must be impervious to water at a 
temperature of 80° F. Tests of imperviousness to be 
made by folding the paper into cones as for filtering pur- 
poses. The cones are filled with water at 80° F. to a 
depth of 2 inches ; no water must come through the cone 
during a period of 24 hours. 

"The bags must be made with seams turned over not 
less than % inch. The seams must be stitched midway 
between the inner and outer edges. The length of the 
stitches must not exceed % inch. 

' ' The bags must be of sufficient diameter to fit sides of 
kegs without stretching. 

"The bags must be of sufficient length, so that when 
placed in keg and filled to capacity of keg and the end 
of the bag closed by tying, there will be not less than 3 
inches length above the tie." 






CHAPTER XXII 

EXPORT SHIPMENTS IN BAGS, BUNDLES AND 
i WITHOUT PACKING 

IN this chapter we have for brief consideration several 
forms of export shipments which may not at first 
seem to require any special study, and are essentially 
different in many respects from shipments in cases, 
crates or bales. However, shipments in bags or bundles, 
and even shipments that are sent overseas without any 
packing whatsoever — that is, bare or naked shipments, 
as they are variously distinguished — do involve certain 
considerations which should require study. First of all, 
in such shipments, as in any other, there is the natural 
desire of every shipper that his merchandise arrive in 
the hands of his foreign customers safely and in the best 
possible condition. No matter what forms shipments 
may take, it has always to be remembered that they will 
undergo many different handlings before they reach the 
point of destination overseas. Protection given must be 
adequate to accomplish this result of safe and sound de- 
livery, and also sufficient to insure delivery with a mini- 
mum loss of contents of bags or bundles. Moreover, the 
method adopted must insure the arrival, intact, of units 
or combinations of units which may be shipped naked, 
and their deliveries to the prospective consignees. 

Shipments in Bags 

Many different commodities included in the commerce 
of the world are customarily shipped in bags, including, 
for example, flour, corn meal, rice, seeds, sugar, coffee, 
rubber, jute, cork, fertilizers, bone meal, cottonseed meal, 
corn cake, beans, peas and similar vegetables, asbestos, 
china clay, soda ash and some other chemicals, etc. 

593 



594 EXPORT PACKING 

The first consideration affecting shipments in bags is 
the quality and texture of the material used for the sack- 
ing. This obviously must depend to a large extent upon 
the value of the contents. Certainly American cotton 
bags have won an enviable reputation throughout the 
world, and are most highly prized by other countries for 
overseas shipments. The bags themselves are imported 
in large quantities from the United States — very espe- 
cially by countries exporting valuable seeds, for example. 
However, the price of the bags under discussion is such 
that they are not commonly regarded as possible con- 
tainers for commodities of low or even of average 
values. In shipping many low-grade commodities it is 
necessary sometimes to employ second-hand and even 
patched bags, but when this is done care should be exer- 
cised to select for any one shipment only those bags 
having as nearly as possible a uniform appearance. It 
is often necessary for foreign buyers to re-sack products 
received from overseas, because of the dirty and unsalable 
condition in which bags are received. So doing does not 
contribute to the importer's good temper or to his 
kindly feeling toward American shippers. And, then, 
too, constant chafing inevitably involved in the course 
of a sea voyage must always be remembered, and 
the frequent rehandling of goods shipped in no matter 
what containers. It has been reported from Porto Rico, 
for example, in regard to shipments of flour to that 
island, that the average shipment is handled by carriers 
at least four times, and very often twice four times, be- 
fore arriving at destination. 

Texture of Bagging Important.— The texture of the 
bagging employed is frequently important, for probably 
considerably more than one-half of all claims made on 
shippers for short weights are traceable to the sifting of 
the contents of bags placed in old or loosely woven sack- 
ing. Meal, flour, grain, rice, seeds and similar commodi- 
ties shipped in old bags of coarse texture almost always 
involve rather serious losses from sifting. It has been 
estimated that waste in many shipments amounts to from 



BUNDLED AND NAKED SHIPMENTS 595 

2 per cent to 5 per cent, largely or chiefly because of 
sifting from loosely woven bags ; therefore the tissue of 
the bagging should be well woven, but nevertheless it 
must not be stiff or hard, but, on the other hand, elastic 
and supple, to conform readily to the contents. 

Losses claimed on arrival weights, when not due to 
sifting because of the loose texture of bags, are almost 
always to be traced to the poor sewing of bags. One 
critic complains that in sewing up bags it is too often 
the custom to begin three or four inches from each side 
ear, with the result that when the sewer loosens the sack, 
gaps develop in the space left between the first stitch and 
the ear, out of which the contents are bound to work. It 
is advised that the first stitch should be taken not over 
one inch from the ear. However, there are not always 
two ears left on the bag; frequently there is one only, 
and that in the center. Irish importers of flour and meal 
have suggested that the tops of sacks be sewed more 
closely, and with more stitches, and that the ear be not 
placed too near the center of the top. The ears are often 
used as handles, and the bags are less liable to burst 
when the ear is on the side than when it is placed in the 
center. 

Use of Double Bags.— Damage to bags from the use 
of longshoremen's hooks is evidently to be expected and 
is probably unavoidable. Partly on this account, double 
bags are frequently to be advised, in order that if the 
outer bag be torn by hooks or by rough handling the inner 
bag will still protect the contents. Another reason for the 
employment of double bags, applying especially to ship- 
ments of flour, is that the inner sack will be preserved in 
a fairly clean condition by the exterior sack, and there- 
fore that the merchandise will arrive in suitable condition 
for immediate resale. Inner bags may be sometimes of 
paper, sometimes of cotton, sometimes of jute — depend- 
ent upon the commodity shipped — whether, for example, 
fine wheat flour or common vegetables — paper linings fre- 
quently being employed inside the burlap bags in the 
shipment of soda ash. 



596 EXPORT PACKING 

One of the largest American exporters of flour, in 
speaking of shipments of that commodity in bags or 
sacks, states that a great variety of such containers is 
employed according to the requirements and conditions of 
different foreign countries or of sundry foreign import- 
ers. Flour is sometimes packed in 20-pound cotton sacks, 
98-pound Osnaburg sacks, 49-pound cotton sacks, 140- 
pound jute sacks, 200-pound Osnaburg sacks, 97-pound 
drill sacks, 196-pound Osnaburg sacks, 132-pound drill 
sacks. Cotton sacks employed for the small bags some- 
times demanded, include 7-pound, 24%-pound oblong and 
24 1 /2-pound square, 12-pound, 25-pound and 40-pound 
containers. Cotton sacks holding 126 pounds are also em- 
ployed with an outer sack of jute. The largest and more 
or less regular sacks are usually employed when no par- 
ticular requirements are given by customers. The small 
bags are grouped in bundles and packed in burlap. The 
larger sacks are shipped as they are (see cut, page 535). 

Osnaburg is regarded as the most desirable material 
for flour bags of the common shipping weight of 200 
pounds. Lighter materials have not proven satisfactory 
for such weights. A large shipper states that corn meal 
is exported in 98-pound cotton sacks and 196-pound Osna- 
burg cotton bags. The meal is kiln dried before being 
shipped. 

Wrong Use of Bags.— Bags have sometimes mis- 
takenly been used for the shipment of all sorts of com- 
modities for which they ought never to be employed. For 
example, from Manila it is reported that not long ago a 
lot of railway spikes were shipped to that port in quan- 
tities of several hundred pounds in a flimsy jute sack. 
The natural and inevitable result was that the sacks 
arrived all torn and gaping, with a fairly large percent- 
age of their contents missing. Eeference has been made, 
in the chapter in this volume devoted to shipments in 
barrels, to the customary English practice of shipping 
Portland cement in bags. That practice may easily be 
understood, while the queer twist in a shipper's mind 
which would induce him to dispatch two or three hundred 



BUNDLED AND NAKED SHIPMENTS 597 

pounds of iron spikes in a bag is not comprehensible. 
Commodities for which bags are suitable overseas ship- 
ping containers may easily be distinguished by mere 
superficial study of the principles of ocean freighting. 

Proper marking and addressing of shipments in bags 
requires very careful attention, in order that marks may 
not be obliterated, worn off, or in any way lost or made 
unreadable upon arrival in foreign ports. Such marking 
is, however, similar in all respects to the marking of 
bales, which will be found discussed at length in other 
pages of this volume. 

Shipments in Bundles 

Under the heading of "Bundles" there must be in- 
cluded several more or less dissimilar ways of shipping; 
for example, here we have merchandise which is merely 
wrapped in burlap or some similar material, making 
what are sometimes rather loosely referred to as bales, 
but which are to be distinguished from bales, properly 
so-called, which term ought to be restricted to compressed 
merchandise; nor can bundles be classified under the 
heading of "Bags," which term should be restricted to 
shipments such as those just above described. Moreover, 
in addition to burlaped bundles, we have shipments of 
numerous commodities tied up in bundles with rope or 
with wire, and shipped without other protection, or with 
slight protection, which is not intended to be of a per- 
manent character, or which may never arrive at destina- 
tion. 

When shipping goods for export in bundles, abso- 
lutely no protection is given the merchandise, as a 
prominent New York export merchant points out in a 
letter, and therefore only those articles which are prac- 
tically indestructible should ever be forwarded in this 
manner. 

General remarks applying to the packing of all sorts 
of goods refer equally to the shipments in bundles, but 
especial stress should be placed on the following features 



598 EXPORT PACKING 

of such shipping. Marks or addresses must be of such a 
character that the bundles will reach the right consignees 
without question or debate. No tags should be enrployed 
which are merely tied to a bundle in the forlorn hope that 
they might still remain attached when destination is 
reached. Remarks applying to addressing of bales apply 
equally to bundles which are covered with burlap. When 
bundles have no outside wrapping, the addresses should 
be stenciled, if possible, on the merchandise itself, or 
other distinguishing marks employed to which reference 
will shortly be made under the head of "Bare or Naked 
Shipments." Great care must be exercised in the tying 
together of articles into bundles. A New York export 
merchant emphasizes this in writing: "Bundles should be 
tied very securely so that one piece cannot slip out, and 
so cause the undoing of the entire bundle." Many com- 
plaints are received as to the use of old rope or twine 
in fastening together bundles which, in such instances, 
often arrive in miscellaneous bulk condition and not in the 
original shipping state. Wire or iron bands should prefer- 
ably be used, twisted, or drawn very tight when small arti- 
cles are shipped, such, for example, as barrel staves. The 
usual bands around the circumference of the bundle may 
advantageously be supplemented with other bands run- 
ning lengthwise, to prevent the dropping out of some of 
the interior contents and thus loosening the entire bundle 
in the course of the many handlings which such ship- 
ments, like any overseas shipments, necessarily receive. 
If rope or twine is employed, liberal use of it should be 
made, each round carefully, tightly and individually 
knotted. The very slight extra expense required is well 
worth while. All bundles should, of course, be so made as 
to occupy the least possible cubic space, the only exception 
to be recognized being certain shipments in bundles of 
rather fragile merchandise which requires packing or 
cushioning with excelsior, grass or straw, the safe arrival 
of the contents being of even greater importance than the 
saving of cubic space. 

Furniture in Bundles.— Writing to the author regard- 



BUNDLED AND NAKED SHIPMENTS 599 

ing his practice in export shipping, a manufacturer 
states : ' ' Furniture is sometimes packed for export in 
bundles, especially when shipped to countries in which 
duties are assessed on the basis of gross weights — that is 
to say, chiefly to some of the Latin American countries — 
and in these cases extraordinary precautions are usually 
taken to protect the goods both from damage and with 
adequate waterproofing materials. Burlap of suitable 
quality is usually laid out, spread with excelsior to a 
depth of five or six inches or more (according to the arti- 
cle that is to be packed), then is brought up around and 
over the furniture and sewed tightly. Bundling is ad- 
visable only for nearby countries, or when the article of 
furniture can be completely knocked down or is so in- 
expensive that the price of a case would be dispropor- 
tionate to its value, or where duties are paid on the basis 
of gross weight. Tarpaulins should be used inside of the 
burlaps, or sometimes oiled paper instead of tarpaulins, 
for adequate protection against rain storms and other 
damage from moisture.' ' 

Not only are some comparatively simple pieces of fur- 
niture bundled for export, but the practice has even been 
extended to the export shipments of iron safes. In both 
cases, one of the important safeguards to be adopted is 
the protection of the legs of pieces of furniture — ward- 
robes, for example — and the wheels which are usually 
attached to American but not to European safes. If it is 
impossible to demount legs or wheels, as ought always to 
be done, extreme care must be shown in their protection, 
bracing employed if necessary and the very thick cushion- 
ing which should protect all surfaces of contents of 
bundles of this description must be many times increased 
for the protection of such projecting parts as legs or 
wheels. The obvious risk of damage from hooks in any 
shipments in bundles must be carefully considered when 
furniture or anything of that sort is shipped. Moreover, 
it is quite clear that any such shipments in bundles cannot 
be expected to travel through to destination right side up. 
Bundles are likely to be loaded and stowed on their sides 



600 EXPORT PACKING 

or on their heads, or in any haphazard fashion ; and fur- 
thermore, especially as applying to bundled pieces of 
furniture, there is the very great danger of crushing from 
superimposed packages, some of which may be very 
heavy indeed. 

Automobile Tires Bundled.— One manufacturer says 
that solid tires are baled separately, each tire by itself, 
and shipped in this form baled with a good grade of 
burlap. 

Another manufacturer submits photographs showing 
solid truck tires, the boxing of which is very expensive, 
while the slight damage which might be incurred, if bur- 
lapped, is so small that it does not pay to box the tires. 
Therefore, tires are wrapped as shown in a photograph 
on page 601, and then five tires are bound together as 
further illustrated, and finally all surrounded by suitable 
burlap protection. 

Another manufacturer says that he frequently uses 
bundles for the shipping of automobile tires when cus- 
toms regulations of certain countries make so doing ad- 
visable. The tires are shipped in bundles of from four to 
six tires, the tubes being deflated and placed inside of the 
bundle, which is wrapped securely with burlap — generally 
a sort of white compound waterproof paper and burlap, 
which allows the mark to be seen readily. In shipping to 
Chile, bundles are made small for convenience of trans- 
portation in that country. 

Bundles of Shovels, Handles, Etc.— A manufacturer 
of shovels packs his products both in cases and in burlap 
bundles. When in bundles, usually one dozen shovels are 
carefully tied together with wire and then wrapped in 
burlap, as shown in cuts page 420. It may be suggested 
that to the critic it appears that the burlap wrapping, as 
shown, is almost certain to be torn and in shreds, if not 
entirely missing, by the time these bundles arrive at 
destination, with the possible consequence that marks 
and addresses have disappeared. An improvement would 
seem to be suitable tying with rope or wire to secure the 
burlap wrapping, and making it fit snugly to the con- 




Courtesy of Col. J. N. Wolfson. 
Unidentified Shipment of Iron Bars. 

Shows bar iron received at Manila without evidence of packing marks or 
brands. 




. Courtesy of Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co. 
Method of Packing Tires. 

(Left) Tivo of the solid truck tires shown are wrapped in burlap ready for 
shipment. (Right) Illustrates method of tying tires prior to baling. Note 
marking on completed bale. . 

601 




Courtesy of Mesta Machine Co. 
Shipments of Large Machinery. 
Protection is afforded by strips of wood as shown in photograph. 




Courtesy of William M. Wilson's Sons. 

Drum for Export Shipment. 

For detailed comment on use of types of drums fo>r various commodities 
see text. 



602 



BUNDLED AND NAKED SHIPMENTS 603 

tents, otherwise protection desired from the burlap 
would in many shipments be altogether lost. 

The specifications for packing issued by the General 
Engineer Depot, United States Army, provide : ' ' Shovels 
will be shipped in bundles of six, securely wired together 
with annealed wire of not less than No. 12 B.W.G. The 
bowls will be nested, the handles wired in two tiers of 
three each. ' ' 

A report from Mexico recently received compliments 
American packing of shovels, in which great improve- 
ment has been shown in recent years over the old twine- 
bound bundles which usually arrived with units scat- 
tered. Strong burlap, well sewed, is now employed, 
bound with twisted iron wires, or tightly drawn iron 
strapping. 

One house, doing an international business in handles, 
writes: "We frequently pack handles for some of our 
export trade in heavy burlap bags, well tied with two or 
three-ply sisal rope," although more frequently this 
house ships in closed cases. 

Bundled Picture Mouldings.— Picture mouldings are 
sometimes packed in bundles instead of in cases, when it 
is desirable to minimize the gross weight in some Latin 
American countries, particularly Venezuela, where im- 
port duties are on the basis of gross weight of the pack- 
age. Properly picture mouldings .ought to be packed in 
cases for adequate protection. However, a large manu- 
facturer writes that in case of necessity, for shipping to 
markets just referred to : "We tie up enough moulding to 
make a bundle about 12 inches in diameter, around this 
for protection tying heavy cushions of excelsior covering 
the entire length. The whole is then covered with a 
heavy rubberized waterproof paper of three-ply thick- 
ness, to keep out dampness. The entire bundle is then 
sewed up in burlap and strapped with wire, making a 
gross weight of about 135 pounds. This has been pro- 
nounced a very satisfactory method of such shipping. ,, 

Staves, Hoops and Lumber in Bundles.— Small parcels 
of lumber, especially in the finer hardwoods, are usually 



604 EXPORT PACKING 

forwarded in bundles, and require no special considera- 
tion, except for the necessity of tying up firmly and 
tightly, yet with such protection to the corners of the 
bundles that the abutting pieces of lumber will not be cut 
by the wires or bands and rendered unsalable, and al- 
ways with due precautions against the slipping out of 
pieces of lumber from the interior of the bundle. Care 
also should be exercised to pack together, so far as pos- 
sible, pieces of one length and width, in order to guard 
against the breaking of the ends of long pieces and the 
splitting of wide pieces in the course of the voyage. 

From Liverpool it is stated that there is general 
ground for complaint as to the manner at present adopted 
in the United States of packing or bundling staves, head- 
ings and hoops. Heading for export should be pressed 
tighter than usual; and in cases where only two wires 
are generally employed, at least four should be used. 
The method recommended most highly is that of using 
bundling iron ; that is, iron strips about one-half inch in 
width. Some of this that proves most effective has a 
corrugated edge, which absolutely prevents slipping. 
When this is employed only two pieces will be necessary, 
one piece being nailed on the bottom and passed entirely 
around, and the other piece being nailed on the top and 
being passed around the bundle likewise. "Wooden cleats 
laid across the top and bottom head of the bundle, to- 
gether with iron straps, also prove very satisfactory 
for heading. A very simple precaution in packing staves, 
but one that repays the extra expense manifold, is that 
of connecting the usual ties at both ends with a third one 
running lengthwise of the bundle. Hoops generally ar- 
rive in pretty fair condition, it is said, and if they are 
done up in bundles of 10 coils each and a little extra care 
is used in the tying, and a little more twine used, they 
will probably carry in good condition. 

Hickory squares are packed in bundles and carry best 
if bound with wire. If poorly tied, pieces slip out when 
moved so that from 25 per cent to 30 per cent land in 
bulk. Bundles of staves and shooks are often poorly tied 



BUNDLED AND NAKED SHIPMENTS 605 

with cord. Wire-bound bundles generally carry well. 

An export house writes to the author : "In most cases 
our staves are shipped loose, except in the case of sawn 
staves which are usually bundled for convenience of 
handling; especially where staves weigh less than 2 
pounds we always bundle them to avoid loss in transit. 

"In shipping barrels for export, they are usually 
knocked down, the staves bundled by themselves, and the 
heading and hoops are packed in a set-up barrel, so that 
a given number of bundles, together with one barrel con- 
taining sufficient heading and hoops constitute a given 
number of complete packages. 

"There, is no definite standard method of packing 
cooperage material, and on export business it is always 
the custom to conform to the ideas of the buyers. ' ' 

Another shipper of staves states that the practice with 
them is to ship staves loose or in bundles tied with wire or 
strap iron. This house does not case or crate the staves. 

Iron and Steel Products in Bundles.— A prominent 
manufacturer and exporter advises the author as to the 
company's export shipments in the following language: 
1 1 Tlie rolling mills in this country that are interested in 
export business usually bundle bars in very small pack- 
ages, presumably because they have not the necessary 
crane facilities to enable them to handle larger packages. 
Their bundles usually run from about 250 pounds to 300 
pounds, and as most bars shipped for export are at least 
30 feet in length, this means that the bundles contain very 
few bars. As a result, the packages are not sufficiently 
stiff to withstand the handling to which they are sub- 
jected in loading to and from steamers, such shipments 
frequently arriving at destination with the bars very 
badly bent, involving extra expense to the customer in 
straightening the bars before placing them in stock. 

"Our experience of a good many years indicates that, 
depending upon the size and length of the bars, the pack- 
ages should run from a minimum of about 1,000 pounds 
up to 1,600 pounds, t or sometimes as much as 2,000 
pounds. If proper care is used in nesting the bars and 



606 EXPORT PACKING 

in putting on the ties, this size package will insure great 
stiffness. 

"It is our practice to use wire ties of slightly less than 
i/4" diameter, spaced 1 foot from either end of the bundle 
with intermediate ties, usually 30", but never more than 
36", on centers. These wire ties are in turn wired with 
smaller wire to at least two of the outside bars in the 
bundle so that, if the package changes shape due to rough 
handling or the piling of heavy cargo on top of it, the ties 
cannot slip out of position. Considerable care is neces- 
sary in tightening up the wire ties because, if they are 
twisted too tight, the wire becomes crystalline and will 
break under any heavy strain. 

"There are some ports where the ships unload into 
lighters, where the stevedores will deliberately break 
open these packages because of their objection to 
handling the heavy bundles from the lighter to the dock, 
but even in such cases the shipments will reach destina- 
tion in much better condition because most of the rough 
handling occurs in loading to and from the ship. 

"We would be very much interested in seeing all bar 
shipments for export bundled more or less in the above 
manner, as we think it would have a beneficial effect on 
American steel export trade generally. 

"The bundles of bars are tagged with tin tags manu- 
factured by our company. These tags are embossed with 
the shipping marks of consignee. Some of our customers 
also request that the ends of bars be painted with a speci- 
fied color, so that the goods may be identified in case tags 
are lost. Each bundle has at least two tin tags." 

Another large exporter writes as follows: "Steel 
wire is put up in coils weighing from approximately 125 
pounds to 155 pounds; also in coils weighing approxi- 
mately 65 to 80 pounds. These are so-called 'catch 
weight ' or i split catch-weight' coils. 'Exact weight 
coils' weigh from 11 pounds up. Coils are shipped bare 
or oiled, or wrapped in paper or burlap, or both, and for- 
warded in single coils, or in bundles of two, nested and 
tied together, or several coils tied together. 



BUNDLED AND NAKED SHIPMENTS 607 

" Fence wire is put up in catch-weight, split catch- 
weight or even weight bundles, in ordinary round coils, 
square bundles, two round coils nested, or two or more 
coils wired together. This wire is shipped bare. The 
wire is tagged with a linen or tin tag. 

"Barbed wire is put up on either single or double 
cross piece wooden reels and shipped in this way. These 
reels vary from 25 to 125 pounds net weight, and are 
shipped bare. When the wire is transported by mule it 
is sometimes burlapped, to protect the animal. 

" Two-strand twisted cable, or barbless fencing wire, 
is packed on wooden reels, like barbed wire, in catch 
weight reels, being tagged in the same way as fence wire. 

"Wire fencing is shipped bare in rolls of various 
lengths." 

The following practice is in use by a third large ship- 
per: "Bars in small sizes are put up in bundles, the 
bundles tagged, and large sizes are shipped loose. Occa- 
sional bars are tagged. The ends of all loose bars have 
an identifying paint mark. 

"Sheets, both plain and corrugated, are shipped in 
bundles, in skeleton unlined crates, in skeleton felt lined 
crates, and occasionally, but rarely, in boxes. All of the 
marks necessary can be put on the crates, bundles or 
boxes. 

"Barbed wire is put up on reels or spools of the 
weights specified by customer. The spools are suitably 
tagged and without covering. Reels of other wire may 
be shipped in burlap. ' ' 

Specifications for packing of the General Engineer 
Depot of the United States Army provide that "steel 
pipe, when less than 2 inches in diameter, shall be bundled 
with not less than No. 12 B. W. G. annealed wire into 
bundles of preferably less than 200 pounds. Threads will 
be slushed and provided with a metal thread protector." 

A report received from South America reads: "Gal- 
vanized wire in sizes as fine as No. 25 gauge is almost 
always packed in specified weight bundles wrapped in 
burlap. Sometimes customers demand paper wrapping 



608 EXPORT PACKING 

as well as burlapping, but an experienced shipper believes 
that any galvanized wire heavier than No. 25 gauge does 
not necessarily require paper wrapping in addition to 
burlapping. Wire in finer sizes, from Nos. 25 to 30 gauge, 
packed in specified weight bundles, should always be 
wrapped in paper in addition to the burlap. South Amer- 
ican markets sometimes require wire in bundles, some- 
times packed in barrels." 

Electrical wire is generally shipped in rolls, but the 
usual roll might be made much more compact, thus taking 
up much less cubic space and arriving in better condition. 
Paper ought not to be used as wrapping, for burlap will 
ensure arrival in much neater and more salable condition. 

A large New York exporter doing business with Japan 
is of the opinion that such material as band iron and box 
strapping should be wrapped in burlap in bundles weigh- 
ing about 200 pounds, and if likely to corrode the mate- 
rial should be first wrapped in hardware paper and then 
burlap. If one coil of strapping or wire or similar mate- 
rial is not heavy enough to make about 200 pounds, then 
two bundles may be strapped together. This house points 
out that there is a great saving in space, by bundling the 
material in this manner, over the practice sometimes 
adopted of shipping in barrels. 

A manufacturer of that product states that insulated 
wire is packed in coils, protected by waterproof paper 
and burlap. 



<< 



Bare" or "Naked" Shipments 



Since no export packing of any description is em- 
ployed in the overseas forwarding of commodities here to 
be classified, which are shipped without packing or pro- 
tection of any description, or slight, if any, protection, 
it might on first thought seem that no attention need be 
given in these pages to such shipments. However, there 
is one very important matter which, from innumerable 
complaints that are received, should be given a good deal 
more thought than would appear to have been devoted to 



BUNDLED AND NAKED SHIPMENTS 609 

the subject heretofore. This refers to the adequate mark- 
ing of many such shipments, or a specific indication of 
some sort applied to each article shipped bare which will 
ensure the arrival of each such article in the hands of the 
legitimate consignee. Innumerable complaints are re- 
ceived from importers in other countries of the arrival of 
iron and steel products — bars, rods, rails, etc. — without 
identifying marks, with consequent serious losses to 
importers. For example, observe the reproduction of 
photograph (page 601) supplied by Colonel Joseph N. 
Wolfson, of Manila, illustrating losses incurred at that 
port through the arrival of merchandise which cannot be 
identified. This is a photograph of quite a quantity of 
bar iron, which arrived at Manila "without the slightest 
evidence of packing marks or brands.' ' Apparently a 
good many American shippers pay no attention at all to 
the application of identifying marks to loose goods 
shipped bare, while others adopt very haphazard methods 
of marking such goods. For example, one shipper writes 
as follows: "Pig iron, as a rule, is shipped without any 
marks, but if several different kinds are forwarded in the 
same vessel, buckets of different colors of paint are some- 
times poured over the various piles.' ' It would seem to 
the critic that a stripe or splash of paint applied with a 
brush individually to each pig would cost practically 
nothing, and would be a much surer means of identifying 
the consignee, different consignees in the same port 
having, of course, each his own distinguishing color. As 
a matter of fact, the use of paint of distinguishing colors 
seems about the only practical and economical fashion of 
indicating consignees of merchandise of this description 
which is shipped loose ; very especially when rods, bars, 
etc., are of comparatively small sizes or diameters, to 
which it may be physically impossible to affix stenciled 
or other similar consignee marks in full. The paint 
marks in question are usually applied at the ends of the 
bars or rails, or whatever the commodity may be. This, 
however, is a practice which heretofore seems to have 
been more honored in the breach than in the observance. 



610 EXPORT PACKING 

Indeed, some shippers do not seem to have appreciated 
the really serious losses which have been incurred by for- 
eign consignees, one large shipper actually going so far, 
in a conversation with the author, as to remark: "A 
15-foot bar, even in small sizes, is not an object easily 
lost." The answer is that they are frequently lost. This 
same shipper expressed his disbelief in claims advanced 
on account of such losses, although there can be no doubt 
at all about the good faith, substantiated in many 
instances by photographs, of the customers of American 
shippers who have complained in this respect. 

Wherever possible, full stenciled marks, always made 
with thoroughly waterproof paint of such a description 
that it will not easily be rubbed or blurred, should be 
invariably employed, as, for example, in shipments of 
steel pieces, and in shipments of such other articles often 
forwarded bare or without protection, as. boilers, very 
large pieces of machinery, etc. 

Large Machinery.— Two considerations generally in- % 
spire the shipment in bare or unprotected condition of 
large pieces of machinery. First and chief of which is 
the usually rough character of the piece being shipped, 
which ordinarily is intrinsically proof against the usual 
shipping risks. The second and minor consideration is 
that even when there are fragile or more or less delicate 
parts of the piece, they may be more tenderly treated if 
shipped bare and with the dangerous points easily visible, 
than might be the case if very carefully boxed and hidden. 
It may usually be taken as probable, at least, that large 
and very heavy pieces will be handled with some care and 
consideration by stevedores, and receive the personal 
attention of ships' officers, partly because of the power 
required in hoisting heavy pieces, and partly because of 
the care required in properly adjusting slings to guard 
against damage to the deck or even the bottom of a ship, 
should a heavy piece break loose from the slings and fall 
a considerable distance. Instances have been known 
where a very heavy piece, thus escaping from its fasten- 
ings, has plunged through the hatchways of a ship, and 






BUNDLED AND NAKED SHIPMENTS 611 

broken a hole right through the ship's bottom which re- 
quired thousands of dollars of expense in drydocking and 
repairing. 

In the shipments of large pieces of machinery, or any- 
thing of that description, care must of course be taken for 
the protection against rust or other damage of bright 
parts, by thorough slushing in the fashion usually pre- 
scribed for machinery in general, as elsewhere in this 
volume fully described. Skids frequently have to be em- 
ployed for the mounting of such pieces, in order to facili- 
tate their moving on rollers along wharves or across the 
floors of warehouses. In this connection reference may 
be made to photograph (reproduced on page 371) illus- 
trating the manner in which a large condenser is pre- 
pared for export shipment, when supporting saddles or 
feet are not cast integral with the shell. Attached shaft- 
ing, crank shafts or axles, in the case of large flywheels, 
etc., should usually be protected by strips of wood, as 
will be noted in the reproduction of a photograph ap- 
pearing on page 602. See further in this general connec- 
tion remarks appearing in the chapter devoted to bulky 
shipments under the head of locomotives. 

Chains.— A prominent manufacturer and exporter 
states that chain larger than 1" is shipped loose, without 
packing of any description ; also smaller sizes are usually 
packed in wooden cases, or in oil barrels. This manu- 
facturer does not state what, if any, protection is given 
the larger sizes against danger of rusting, but if, as is 
often if not usually the case, the chain is shipped for 
re-sale — that is, shipped to merchants rather than to 
users — then its arrival in bright, salable condition would 
seem to require adequate protection against this risk. 

Official Specifications.— In connection with shipments 
of merchandise bare or without packing, the specifications 
of the General Engineer Depot of the United States 
Army provide as follows: "Boilers. — Where there are 
no protuberances likely to be injured the depot may 
authorize shipment without crating; in this case the 
marking will be put upon the metal. Tanks, boilers and 



612 EXPORT PACKING 

similar material, where subject to damage if uncrated, 
will be shipped on skids or cradles, secured thereto by 
bands of ample strength provided with a turn buckle or 
satisfactory substitute; they shall be blocked against 
longitudinal shifting ; the skids or cradles will present no 
sharp edges to the loads. 

" Heavy and large tractor or flywheels will generally 
be shipped without crating or boxing. Hubs will be care- 
fully protected, if necessary. 

" Rails will be shipped bare; splice bars preferably in 
pairs bolted together with their own bolts; fittings for 
rails preferably in boxes. 

" Unf abricated rolled beams, channels, angles, tees 
and similar material, including plates, not less than 3/16 
inch thick, will be shipped bare. 

1 'Wire fence material will be made into tight rolls and 
securely wired, with wires about 6 inches from each end 
and not over 36 inches apart, not crated. 

' ' Fabricated structural steel will generally be shipped 
bare. Each piece will be marked as directed. Where pro- 
jecting parts are likely to be injured, such blocking as will 
protect them will be placed, unless held unnecessary.' ' 



CHAPTER XXIII 
EXPORT SHIPMENTS IN DRUMS AND CARBOYS 

THE average American manufacturer of products 
shipped in drums is usually interested mainly in 
the quality of the product and he frequently gives 
the package too little consideration. However, it is 
obvious that the role played by the package is of such 
importance that every effort should be made to provide 
a suitable container. The manufacturer, in ordering his 
cans or drums, should be most careful first to secure 
every bit of information at hand in reference to the par- 
ticular shipment, to consider the nature of the material 
with which the container is to be filled, to understand 
conditions at point of destination, and so on. 

A prominent manufacturer of steel containers offers 
the following remarks on packages of this sort: 

"In the selection of a package for export work, we 
take into consideration the specific gravity of the mate- 
rial to be shipped, the destination, the number of han- 
dlings, and the market for used drums at the port of final 
destination. We do not recommend for any export work 
a package lighter than 16 gauge in the 55-gallon size or 
14 gauge in the 110-gallon size, and for anything longer 
than transatlantic shipments, we recommend a package 
with separately applied rolling hoops. We herewith send 
you a photograph of a standard container (see page 602). 

"For sulphuric and other corrosive acids and mate- 
rials having a gravity over 1, for consumption in Eng- 
land and territories adjacent to the larger continental 
ports, we recommend all 14 gauge with separately applied 
rolling hoops in the 55-gallon size, and all 12 gauge with 
separately applied rolling hoops in the 110-gallon size. 
These specifications also apply for any commodity 
shipped to Asiatic ports, but to the West Coast of South 

613 



614 EXPORT PACKING 

America, and ports in Africa other than Mediterranean 
ports, we suggest the use of the lighter drums. The 
reasons are obvious. 

"In England and the manufacturing districts on the 
Continent of Europe, there is a good market for second 
hand packages, which have recently been selling for more 
than the cost of new packages in this country. There- 
fore, it is economical to purchase a package which will 
better than any other withstand the wear and tear of 
transportation, and consequently present a higher sal- 
vage value on arrival. This also applies to shipments to 
Asiatic ports and to the Mediterranean coast, where there 
is a steady flow of vegetable oils from these territories 
back to the United States. In the case of Africa, with the 
exception of the Mediterranean ports, and the East Coast 
of South America, however, the consuming centers are 
very largely located inland, and here the additional 
weight of the heavier package is a factor worthy of 
serious consideration, especially in view of the fact that 
there is no great demand for packages of this type for 
either local consumption or export. 

"Of course, it is to be expected that the American 
manufacturer will not be very keenly interested in the re- 
sale value of the package once it arrives at destination, 
as he, generally speaking, charges his foreign buyer with 
the original cost of the package plus a slight profit, but 
indirectly we feel that this is an important feature, as 
his foreign buyer is undoubtedly better pleased if he 
receives a package which has a high re-sale value than if 
he receives a package the salvage value of which is prac- 
tically negligible. 

"To recapitulate, we can generally recommend all 12 
gauge in the 110-gallon drum and all 14 gauge in the 
55-gallon drum for export to England, Continental 
Europe, Asia, the West Indies and the East Coast of 
South America, and all 14 gauge in the 110-gallon drum 
and all 16 gauge in the 55-gallon drum to Africa, other 
than Mediterranean ports, and West Coast of South 
America. For specific shipments, where for good and 



SHIPMENTS IN DRUMS AND CARBOYS 615 

sufficient reasons the re-sale value is not considered, we 
recommend, for shipments to England and Continental 
Europe, the 55-gallon drum without separately applied 
rolling hoops, but we do not believe that in any case 
packages of a lighter gauge than those specified should 
be used." 

Specifications for packing issued by the General Engi- 
neer Depot of the United States Army provided that 
50-gallon steel drums used for shipping liquids in general 
be of not less than .0625" in thickness. 

Caustic Soda. — A photograph (see page 619) was re- 
cently sent us of a shipment of caustic soda in drums 
which arrived at destination in very bad shape and was 
the source of grave injury to several stevedores. In this 
case the drum was manufactured of very light material, 
as is too commonly the case, and while the solid mass 
of the soda provided good support for the light metal 
against crushing strains the package was readily punc- 
tured. These punctures easily admitted water which in 
turn dissolved the acid, and a condition was created which 
could not but be dangerous for any one handling the 
package. 

Caustic soda seems to be packed by various manufac- 
turers in different sizes of containers but always in steel 
drums. A prominent exporter of caustic soda writes that 
his caustic soda is packed in steel drums of the following 
sizes and dimensions : In packages having a net weight 
of 675 pounds the drums are made of 24 gauge sheet steel 
stock with the heads rolled or spun in. The caps are 
rolled in ; 720 pounds, 25 gauge body and heads, 4i/2-inch 
rolled in cap; 708 pounds, 22 to 24 gauge; 760 pounds, 
standard U. S. gauge, body 24, head 24, caps 26; 725 
pounds, 26 gauge iron fitted with 9-inch friction plug; 
700 pounds, 24 gauge, 5-inch friction cap in top; 750 
pounds, 23 gauge body and head, 8-inch cap ; 750 pounds, 
24 gauge, 5-inch friction cap in one head; 730 pounds, 25 
gauge sheet steel. 

Another exporter of caustic soda writes : ' l Our caus- 
tic soda packing is in uniform drums of the following 



616 



EXPORT PACKING 



weights: Gross 740 pounds, net 720 pounds; gross 229 
pounds, net 220 pounds; gross 105 pounds, net 100 
pounds.' ' 

A third exporter of caustic soda says that, ' ' caustic 
soda for export is packed in various sized containers and 
various manufacturers have a different method of pack- 
ing. Our packages are made of steel drums in three sizes, 
as follows: Small, 112 pounds net, 119 pounds gross, 
space occupied 2.11 cubic feet; medium, 221 pounds net, 
230 pounds gross, space occupied 2.91 cubic feet; large, 





Courtesy of Union Carbide Sales Co. 



675 pounds net, 695 pounds gross, space occupied 7.77 
cubic feet. All of our drums are filled to exact weight, 
hence with the tare weight known, it is very easy to deter- 
mine the exact amount of caustic soda in each drum." 

Calcium Carbide.— A large shipper of calcium carbide 
writes : "The necessity of secure packing on calcium car- 
bide shipped by water is of extreme importance and 
places a double obligation on the manufacturers of this 
commodity. 

"Calcium carbide, as you perhaps know, is very sus- 
ceptible to moisture and when brought in contact with 



SHIPMENTS IN DRUMS AND CARBOYS 617 

same releases acetylene gas. It is obligatory, therefore, 
that our export packages shall be so constructed as to 
absolutely prevent the contents from coming in contact 
with moisture, and also to make them sufficiently strong 
to withstand the rough handling incidental to long ocean 
voyages. 

"A great many years ago we designed a special pack- 
age for the water shipment of carbide consisting of a 
heavy sheet steel drum, the seams of which are double 
lock-jointed (no solder being used on the package), the 
opening being fitted with a gasketed screw cover, over 
which a metal false cover is placed, and the entire metal 
package is then encased in a heavy wooden overcask. 
(See photograph page 616.) 

"From the fact that carbide so packed by us — ship- 
ments amounting to many thousand tons per year — is 
received at destinations such as Argentina, Chile, Peru, 
Africa, Australia, the Philippines, China or India, in 
first class condition and that we have still to receive our 
first legitimate complaint of damage to the contents of an 
export package, we feel that we have accomplished all 
that is possible in the way of protecting our material, 
and to some extent in * lifting the curse* off American 
packing abroad.' ' 

Printers' Ink.— A great many different commodities 
are shipped in drums, including oils, paints, sundry 
liquids and semi-liquids. In a general way, all such pack- 
ages may be considered similar and may be illustrated by 
photographs which have been supplied of drums used in 
shipping printers' ink. 

Printers' ink, packed in quantities larger than 50- 
pound pails, is generally shipped in steel drums, accord- 
ing to advices received from a prominent manufacturer 
of this commodity. Of these drums (see photograph, 
page 619), three sizes are used, 15-gallon, 30-gallon and 
55-gallon. These are manufactured of No. 18 gauge steel 
with No. 16 gauge heads, with rolling koops rolled into 
the shell, making a very sturdy and satisfactory package. 
Printers' ink is also sometimes shipped in steel pails 



618 EXPORT PACKING 

which, for present purposes, may be considered under 
the general heading of drums, the steel pails used, as 
shown in the illustration (page 620), containing either 25 
or 50 pounds. Attention is called by the manufacturer 
to the following points: (1) the sturdy construction of 
the steel pails and the secure way in which the cover is 
fastened on; (2) very legible stenciling on the pails; (3) 
the aluminum tag which is attached to each pail and 
which carries the batch grinding number. 

Acids.— The shipment of acids is thus described by a 
correspondent : "We ship carboys entirely boxed, in fact, 
there are two boxes, one covering the body and a small 
case covering the neck and head. 

"On mineral acids, further protection is secured by 
using sealing wax over the stopper. With nitric acid we 
use sufficient mineral wool to prevent fire or damage to 
other goods. 

' i Whereas it might be true that the American method 
of packing has not in every instance been of the best, 
nevertheless, the writer feels that a mountain is some- 
times made out of a mole-hill and that undue criticism 
and exaggeration are made of a natural business error, 
or for causes beyond our control." 

Another exporter of acids writes: "Our mineral 
acids for export are sold in glass carboys which are boxed 
for export shipment, the weights and measurements being 
as follows : Gross 246 pounds, tare 57 pounds. 

"These carboys, when used for export, include square 
tops, the measurements being 17% inches width includ- 
ing cleats, 15% inches length, 31 inches height including 
the square tops." 

Carbonic Acid Gas.— Steel cylinders are used in ship- 
ping carbonic acid gas, having a capacity of about 50 
pounds. These cylinders are about 50 inches high by 8 
inches in diameter and are shipped naked without any 
crating. 

Specifications for Drums.— The Interstate Commerce 
Commission regulations covering the specifications re- 
quired in iron or steel barrels or drums for shipment of 




Example of Poor Packing of Caustic Soda. 
Shows caustic soda shipped in container manufactured of very light material. 




Courtesy of Geo. H. Morrill Co. 

Packing of Printers' Ink. 

Drums manufactured of 18 gauge steel, 16 gauge heads, tolih rolling hoops 
rolled into the shell. 

619 




Courtesy of Geo. H. Morrill Co. 
Steel Pails for Printers' Ink,. 

Steel pails 25 and 50 pounds showing construction, stencilling and griding 
number tag. 




Courtesy of Joseph Dixon Crucible Co. 

Packing op Stove Polish. 

Packages first wrapped in paper, then cased. Two cases are strapped together 
as shown. The combined cases are strapped with iron. 

620 



SHIPMENTS IN DRUMS AND CARBOYS 621 

inflammable liquids, may very well be taken as a model 
to be followed by all shippers for export of every com- 
modity for which drums are used. The following are 
extracts from the official regulations in question, full 
particulars of which are readily available from the 
Commission : 

"It is recommended that, when nature of contents will 
permit, each such container should be coated on the inside 
and outside in such manner and with such material as 
will prevent corrosion. 

"An iron or steel barrel or drum with a nominal 
capacity of over 55 gallons, but not over 110 gallons, 
must be constructed of metal the minimum thickness of 
which in any part of the completed barrel or drum must 
be not less than full No. 14 gauge, United States 
standard. 

"The weight of a barrel or drum with a nominal 
capacity of 100 to 110 gallons must be not less than 130 
pounds in the black exclusive of the rolling hoops. 

"An iron or steel barrel or drum with a nominal 
capacity of over 35 gallons, -but not over 55 gallons, must 
be constructed of metal the minimum thickness of which 
in any part of the completed barrel or drum must not be 
less than full No. 16 gauge, United States standard. 

"The weight of a barrel or drum with a nominal 
capacity of 50 to 55 gallons must not be less than 70 
pounds in the black exclusive of the rolling hoops. 

"An iron or steel barrel or drum with a nominal 
capacity of over 10 gallons, but not over 35 gallons, must 
have a minimum thickness of metal in any part of the 
completed barrel or drum of not less than full No. 18 
gauge, United States standard. 

"An iron or steel barrel or drum with a nominal 
capacity of not more than 10 gallons must have a mini- 
mum thickness of metal in any part of the completed 
barrel or drum of not less than full No. 20 gauge, United 
States standard. 

"Each barrel or drum must be tested under water or 
with all seams covered with soapsuds or heavy oil, by 



622 EXPORT PACKING 

interior compressed air at a pressure of not less than 15 
pounds per square inch sustained for not less than two 
minutes, and must stand this test without leaking. 

"The type of barrel or drum must be capable of 
standing without leaking a hydrostatic test pressure of 
not less than 40 pounds per square inch, sustained for 
not less than 5 minutes. 

' l When filled with water to 98 per cent of its capacity 
the type of barrel or drum must also be capable of stand- 
ing without leakage a test by dropping it diagonally on 
its chime from a height of 4 feet upon a solid concrete 
foundation. 

1 i Factory tests of the type package must be made with 
sufficient frequency to insure that the product complies 
with the above paragraphs. 

"Provision must be made for closing the bungholes 
and other openings in such manner as to prevent leak- 
age. Bungs or other closing devices projecting beyond 
the chime or rolling hoops must be capable of withstand- 
ing the same test drop as described by paragraph 9. 
Threaded metal plugs must be close fitting and threads 
in the reinforcements and on the plugs must be cut at 
right angles to the faced surfaces thereof to insure a 
uniform and solid bearing throughout the entire circum- 
ference of the gasket. Gaskets must be made of lead, 
fiber, leather, or other suitable material. Wooden bungs 
must be compressed, tapered bungs, and must be covered 
with a suitable coating and have a driving fit into a 
smooth bung hole tapered the same as the bung. 

"Note: — The gaskets and the flange of the bung 
should be coated with gum shellac dissolved in alcohol 
to about the consistency of molasses and then the bung 
should be set down tight with a wrench having a handle 
at least 18 inches long. The barrel should then be 
allowed to stand on end for a few hours until the shellac 
dries, after which the barrel should be placed bung down 
to test for leakage before offering for shipment. 

"Wooden bungs should be long enough to extend 
about % inch inside of the barrel and should be soaked 



SHIPMENTS IN DRUMS AND CARBOYS 623 

in hot water or hot, thin glue for about a minute before 
driving into the bung hole so that the interior of the 
bung will swell and form a shoulder on the inside of the 
bung hole. 

"The method of manufacturing the barrel or drum 
and the materials used must be well adapted to producing 
a uniform product. Leaks caused by defective manu- 
facture of a barrel or drum must not be "stopped by sol- 
dering, but must be repaired by the method used in con- 
structing the barrel or drum. ' ' 

Carboys.— Similar specifications included in the regu- 
lations of the Interstate Commerce Commission apply to 
carboys of glass or earthenware, which must be employed 
in domestic shipments of inflammable or corrosive liquids 
and these, too, may be accepted as desirable practice 
applying to export shipments. Among these regulations 
the following paragraphs may be quoted : 

"Any glass container with a nominal capacity not 
less than 10 gallons shall be classed as a carboy, and no 
carboy used for the shipment of acids or inflammable 
liquids shall have a nominal capacity of more than 13 
gallons. 

• ' A carboy with a capacity of 12 gallons must contain 
a minimum of 16 pounds of glass. A carboy with a 
capacity of 13 gallons must contain a minimum of 16% 
pounds of glass. 

"Note: — The glass in the side walls of molded car- 
boys should be as well distributed as practicable and the 
minimum thickness should be not less than 2/32 inch. 

"Any clay or earthenware container of not less than 5 
gallons (nominal capacity) shall be classed as a carboy. 
No clay or earthenware carboy shall have a (nominal) 
capacity of more than 13 gallons. 

1 ' The material in the bottom and side walls of clay or 
earthenware carboys shall be as evenly distributed as 
practicable and the minimum thickness shall -not be less 
than % inch. The carboys shall be acid proof. 

"The carboy must be closed (a) by having an earthen- 
ware or glass stopper inserted into the mouth of the 



624 EXPORT" PACKING 

carboy, sealed in place by clay, plaster of Paris, or simi- 
lar material in a plastic condition, and securely fastened 
with burlap or other suitable material drawn tight and 
securely tied under the lip of the mouth with strong cord ; 
(b) by a glass or earthenware stopper with gasket, 
secured by metal fastenings; (c) by a glass or earthen- 
ware stopper ground to fit, secured by burlap or other 
suitable material; (d) if the contents of the carboy are 
not corrosive, by a cork or other similar closing device 
securely fastened in place to prevent leakage. 

"The body of the carboy must be completely inclosed 
in a strong wooden box and so cushioned by proper pack- 
ing material that the glass will not come in contact with 
the wooden or iron covering. (This requirement does 
not apply to the wooden or metal elastic strips used to 
cushion the carboy.) 

"All wooden carboy boxes used as outside conr 
tainers for carboys must comply with the following 
specifications : 

"The material from which these boxes are made must 
be of good sound white pine or any wood of equal or 
superior strength. All lumber must be dry and well sea- 
soned, and must not have loose knots in any part. Mini- 
mum thickness of lumber specified refers to the actual 
thickness in the finished boxes. 

"The thickness of the top, bottom, ends, and sides 
must be not less than % inch. 

"The four vertical edges must be reenforced in a 
suitable manner to secure strength and stiffness. For 
rectangular lead carboys this reenforcement is not re- 
quired, but two of the sides must be of lumber not less 
than 1% inches in thickness. 

"The box must be nailed with nails not smaller than 
7-penny at approximately 2-inch centers or 8-penny nails 
at approximately 2 1 /2-inch centers. The sides and ends 
of the box must be nailed together and also to the reen- 
f orcing pieces. 

"There must be two cleats not less than %" x 1%", 
one placed on each end of the box for carrying and two 



SHIPMENTS IN DRUMS AND CARBOYS 625 

cleats not less than %" x 1%" across the ends of the bot- 
tom of the box to act as shoes and to protect the bottom 
of the carboy. 

•' ' The cushioning support for all carboys must be such 
that the type of box, when containing the carboy filled 
with water to the lower edge of the neck and properly 
packed and cushioned, must be able to withstand the 
following tests: 

"(a) By dropping on its bottom onto a concrete or 
brick floor from each of the heights of 6 inches, 12 inches, 
18 inches, 24 inches, etc., in succession. Each box must 
withstand the first three drops without serious injury, 
and in testing not less than three packages the average 
maximum drop withstood by at least two of them without 
breakage of the carboy must not be less than 24 inches. 

"(b) By suspending as a 14-foot pendulum and 
swinging against a concrete or brick wall with successive 
swings the vertical components of which are 6 inches, 9 
inches, 12 inches, 15 inches, 18 inches, etc. Each box 
must withstand the first four blows without serious 
injury, and in testing not less than three packages the 
average maximum swing withstood by at least two of 
them without breakage of the carboy must be a swing 
with a vertical component of not less than 12 inches. 

"Note: — For carboys cushioned with hay or similar 
material the space between the sides of the carboy and 
the box should be about IV2 inches. ' ' 

Steel Cylinders for Gases.— "Cylinders used for the 
shipment of any gas, not liquefied, and not in solution, 
whose charging pressure does not exceed 300 pounds per 
square inch, at 70° F., must comply with the following 
specifications : (a) Cylinders must be made of basic open 
hearth steel, (b) Chemical analysis : carbon .06 to .20 per 
cent ; phosphorus not to exceed .04 per cent ; sulphur not 
to exceed .05 per cent. The chemical analysis must be 
verified by check analyses made on samples taken from 
one out of each order or lot of 200 or less plates, shells 
or tubes from which the cylinders are to be made. One 
analysis from any one heat of steel is sufficient. 



626 EXPORT PACKING 

"All seamless cylinders must be uniformly and prop- 
erly annealed. 

"The length of thread for connections, such as valves, 
fuse plugs, gauge, etc., must be equal to the standard 
lengths specified for different sizes of pipe thread 
tappings. 

"Standard taper pipe threads must be employed on 
all threading for connections to cylinder, and these con- 
nections must be tapped to gauge with clean cut threads 
so as to insure tight joints. 

"When a cylinder to contain inflammable gas is not 
to be boxed or crated for shipment, the safety and dis- 
charge valves and other connections must be made safe 
from injury during transit : (1) By being set into a recess 
of the cylinder so that it will be impossible for them to be 
struck. if the cylinder is dropped on a flat surface; or (2) 
by a cap, or collar, fastened to the cylinder (not to the 
valve or connection), this cap or collar to be capable of 
withstanding a blow delivered in any direction of a 30- 
pound weight falling 4 feet, and constructed so that this 
blow will not be transmitted to the valve or connection ; or 
(3) by such construction of the valves and connections 
that they will withstand a test consisting of standing the 
cylinder upright on its base and gradually tipping it over, 
allowing it to fall so that the end of the valve or connec- 
tion will strike on a block of some unyielding substance, 
such as stone or iron (not wood). The block must be so 
arranged that the end of the valve or connection will 
strike the block just before the side of the cylinder strikes 
the floor or ground. No leak must develop under this 
test. During the test indicated in (3) above, the cylinder 
must contain compressed air or gas under a pressure of 
at least 50 pounds per square inch, and the absence of 
leakage after the test is completed must be verified by 
application of soapsuds or by other suitable method.' ' 



CHAPTER XXIV 
EXPORT SHIPPING OF BULKY ARTICLES 

SHIPMENTS of certain units of exceptionally large 
dimensions may involve peculiar problems of their 
own, ranging from provisions to be adopted for 
safely loading and unloading, up to special forms of pro- 
tection of different kinds. Shipments of motor boats, 
aeroplanes, locomotive and other boilers, street cars, rail- 
way, freight and passenger cars, when not forwarded 
knocked down or dismantled, frequently assume the 
dimensions of a small house ; and not rarely have to be 
carried on decks of steamers because too great in diame- 
ter to be passed down the hatchways, very especially in 
the case of older and smaller vessels, or sometimes be- 
cause too long to admit of being stowed away in the holds 
because it is impossible to slide them diagonally through 
the 'tween-deck spaces. Everyone who has ever traveled 
on a foreign-bound steamship has observed a great many 
of these large deck shipments, and is thoroughly familiar 
with the fashion in which they are lashed to the decks, 
and the perils which they must necessarily undergo. 
They are exposed to all sorts of misuse and various kinds 
of attack from steamships' crews and from the steerage 
passengers, if any are carried, and even more seriously 
exposed to veritable deluges of salt water, as waves break 
over the decks, sometimes for several days in succession 
during a storm; while in any event they are bound to 
receive the full effect of downpours of rain, alternating 
with possibly a scorching hot sun in the tropics. 

Case Construction.— Apart from the thoroughly 
strong construction that cases, when any are needed in 
the shipment of this sort of cargo, will require, no special 
instructions need here be noted, inasmuch as the subject 
has been fully dealt with under the heading of "Machin- 

627 



628 EXPORT PACKING 

ery," and in Captain Knowl ton's special chapter appear- 
ing in earlier pages in this volume. It may be well, how- 
ever, to observe that in practice cases for all parcels 
likely to be shipped on steamers' decks should be con- 
structed of matched — that is, tongued and grooved — 
lumber. Furthermore, the skids on which such cases are 
mounted, and which will in almost every instance natur- 
ally be supplied by the shipper for the safe transporta- 
tion of his products, should, when deck shipments are 
contemplated or may become necessary, be of such a 
height as to raise the floor of the case above the deck. 
This will permit the free passage of sea or rain water 
under the case. 

Sling Marks.— Much of the cargo of the description 
now under consideration is heavy as well as bulky, and 
often involves more power for loading and unloading 
than the usual ships' winches can supply. When this is 
the case, such exceptionally heavy pieces have to be lifted 
by special derricks either on wharves or on specially con- 
structed floating lighters which are towed alongside of 
ships for this express purpose. When parcels are excep- 
tionally long, it is often necessary to employ two winches 
or two derricks for their hoisting aboard, and for their 
unloading at destination or at transhiping points. In 
any event, after the suitable construction of cases — when 
any are required — the first and most important consid- 
eration is the determination of the center of gravity of 
the piece being shipped, and the location and suitable 
marking of the points at which the slings must be applied. 
In a general way, this point has already been discussed 
and fully emphasized in other chapters in this volume, to 
which reference should now be made. 

Waterproofing. — Dangers incurred by deck cargo 
from rains or from the wash of the sea have already been 
emphasized. It seems to be the custom of shippers of 
this sort of cargo to give chief attention to the construc- 
tion of a felt or tarred paper roof to cover the package 
intended for deck shipment, or which may have to under- 
go that kind of stowing. Specially prepared roofing is, 



EXPORT SHIPPING OF BULKY ARTICLES 629 

of course, admirable so far as it goes, but it is to be feared 
that a good many shippers forget or neglect the desir- 
ability of also protecting the sides and bottoms of the 
cases. Such protection is called for because of the obvi- 
ously equal danger of wetting, and so far as the floors of 
cases are concerned, because of the very great danger of 
water seeping through, soaking up or stagnating in 
puddles on the floors, with possible resulting damage to 
delicate or susceptible parts of the contents of cases. 
With such considerations in mind, the shipper need only 
further refer to remarks on the subject of waterproofing 
in general which appear in many previous pages. 

Protection Against Pilfering.— All bulky deck cargo 
is, as has been pointed out, open to the approach of every 
member of the vessel's crew, who usually have plenty of 
time to lounge about, whittle and generally amuse them- 
selves with such objects. Cutting a hole in a large case 
carried on a steamer's deck might be an innocent form 
of diversion, or it might be done purposely with a view 
to getting a glance at the contents and seeing what was 
readily within reach inside of the case. Brass fittings, 
tool cases, accessories which might seem tempting, ought 
not to be placed inside of such cases, or at least if so 
placed, should be located in such a part of the case, or so 
protected from the walls of the case, that no pilfering, 
even by the removal of a whole board, would be possible. 

Let us now proceed to an examination of the practice 
and policy of some manufacturers shipping products 
which may be of the description to which this chapter is 
devoted. It will be observed that just as some of the 
shipping features to which reference has just been made 
apply to other commodities, for example, automobiles, 
which are not considered especially under this heading, 
so also some of the products vmose shipment is here 
described may be dispatched disassembled or in a 
knocked down condition, or they may sometimes be 
shipped practically assembled. See cut page 638. 

Locomotives.— The European war made immense and 
instant demands upon the builders of locomotives in the 



630 EXPORT PACKING 

United States, and it was fortunate that this industry 
had prepared itself by a long and honorable career in 
the export field. Much that was new in export packing 
practice was developed by the exigencies of war, but the 
locomotive companies for many years have been aggres- 
sive and consistent builders for export trade, and the 
technical skill of the men in charge of this industry has 
made possible a very thorough and fundamental study 
of the shipping and packing problem. 

The export packing of locomotives brings us the prob- 
lem not alone of packing instruments of great delicacy 
and precision, but as well that of the successful disposi- 
tion of large masses where the equalization of strains 
must be carefully watched. In addition to the equaliza- 
tion of strains and the careful study of gravity centers 
the case must be so constructed that it is fully sufficient 
for its purpose. This has brought about a most careful 
laboratory and shipping practice which, in the great loco- 
motive factories of the country, has really developed into 
a science all by itself. 

With reference to the export packing of locomotives, 
a well-known corporation supplies the author with photo- 
graphs (see page 631), and with copies of its shipping in- 
structions, from which the following is selected: 

"1. Construction of Packing Boxes. 

"A. For boxes exceeding 100 cubic feet displacement 
or weighing more than 5,000 pounds, use lumber origin- 
ally 1*4" thick, rough planed on one side, or on both 
sides when this can be done in one operation. Boxes to 
be double boarded; inner course running longitudinally, 
outer course vertically. 

"B. For boxes smaller, or weighing less than that 
specified in the preceding paragraph, use lumber origin- 
ally 2" thick, rough planed, using planed surface for out- 
side of box. 

"C. Make boxes of sound spruce or its equivalent, 
and use oak or hard wood of equivalent strength for bat- 
tens and corners. Bind corners and sides of all boxes 
with 1%" hoop iron No. 16, secured by wire nails. Thor- 




Courtesy of American Locomotive Co. 
Packing of Locomotive Parts. 

(Left) Case containing cylinder heads, guides, rods, and valves. (Right) 
Shows tender frame, brake details and piping in case. 




Courtesy of American Car & Foundry Co. 
Packing of Freight Cars. 

Freight car knocked down ready for shipment. Note all brag$ material has 
been removed. 

631 




Courtesy of Consolidated Shipbuilding Corporation. 
Crated Launch Being Hoisted on Ship. 

Crate shown is for gasoline launch 42 feet long, 9 feet 6 inches beam, and 
12 feet high, approximate weight 8 to 10 tons. Launch is firmly fastened in 
cradle and crate substantially built. 




Courtesy of Curtiss Aeroplane & Motor Corp. 
Packing of Aeroplane. 
Shows hull being shipped intact to facilitate erection in the field. 

632 






EXPORT SHIPPING OF BULKY ARTICLES 633 

oughly secure material in all boxes to avoid any possi- 
bility of its shifting and consequent injury. Brace suf- 
ficiently between top and bottom of all boxes to avoid 
crushing when heavy materials, such as wheels, trucks, 
etc., are stowed on top. 

"D. All packing cases should be ventilated by boring 
a line of holes two inches in diameter and four feet apart 
on all sides of the cases, about one foot from the top, and 
a corresponding line of holes one foot from the bottom. 

' ' 2. Packing Parts Into Boxes. 

"A. Ship nothing in which water is liable to have col- 
lected without draining, to avoid injury to parts by 
freezing. Avoid delay and annoyance in assembling 
engines at destination by packing all material necessary 
for each in boxes for that engine. Do not use excelsior, 
sawdust, shavings, etc, in packing. Allow nothing to 
come in contact with varnished surfaces of'tank, cab and 
other material of like nature. Whenever possible, engi- 
neers who are to have charge of assembling engines at 
destination should be in the shop during the dismantling 
and packing. 

"B. Steamship freight rates are based upon a dis- 
placement of 40 cubic feet per long ton, and charges are 
assessed on basis of weight or measurements at ship's 
option, whichever will net them the larger revenue. As 
far as possible, pack boxes so the maximum weight is 
obtained with reference to cubical measurements of box. 
The maximum length, height and width are used to cal- 
culate displacement of boxes or unboxed parts, such as 
boilers, driving wheels, trucks, etc. All projections such 
as dome cap and projecting studs must be removed. 

"C. Bulky, heavy and lengthy cargo shipped over- 
land via Pacific Coast ports, destined to Australia and 
Oriental points, are subject to arbitrary and tranship- 
ment charges beyond port of call given in Trans-Conti- 
nental Freight Bureau Circular No. 55-A and supple- 
ments. As far as possible, such packages should be con- 
fined to weights or measurements under the following, on 
which extra charges are levied: 



634 EXPORT PACKING 

"Lengthy cargo — 24' or more — add 20% regular rate. 

"Bulky cargo — 2 tons (80 cu. ft.) or more — add 30% 
regular rate. 

" Heavy cargo — each weighing 1 ton (2,000 pounds) or 
more — add 50% regular rate. 

"D. The weight of individual cases, wherever pos- 
sible, must not exceed three tons when shipment is made 
to South Africa. An additional freight rate is paid on 
shipments in excess of three tons. Tires on all foreign 
orders, when not applied to driving wheels, need not be 
cased. 

"3. Slushing Compound. 

"Mixtures referred to in these instructions are as 
follows : 

"No. 1. — Composed of 20 pounds white lead 

" 10 pounds tallow 
" 1 gal. black oil 
" 5 pounds beeswax 

"No. 2. — Warren Slushing Compound. 

"No. 3. — Compound similar to No. 2, made by Gen- 
eral Electric Company. 

"Note: — Mixture of No. 2 or No. 3 should be removed 
by use of carbon oil. 

"4. Marking Parts. 

"In the absence of specifications or special instruc- 
tions, mark by stenciling, stamping, or with a zinc tag 
wired to the parts (except as noted), all parts which are 
removed from engine for packing, with the road number 
of the engine to which the parts belong and with the 
letters 'R' or 'L' (signifying its position on the right or 
left side) where necessary. 

"5. Stamping. 

1 ' The character and finish of the work will determine 
size of stamp to be used, e. g., letters or figures 3/16" high 
will be sufficiently clear for the motion work and other 
finished parts, but for rough and unmachined forgings or 
castings use letters or figures not less than %" high. 

"6. Tagging. 

"Wire zinc tags to parts not stamped. Linen tags 



EXPORT SHIPPING OF BULKY ARTICLES 635 

should not be used, as marking becomes illegible. Zinc 
tags < to be made with 'Hoovers' embossing press. On 
these tags add such information, in addition to marking 
specified in paragraph 4, as will clearly identify the 
character or location of parts. 

"7. Stenciling Packages. 

"A. The order number, serial number and letter in- 
dicating package will be stenciled on top and sides of 
boxes, illustrated by accompanying sketch, explained as 
follows : S-571 is order number. Numeral 6 is serial num- 
ber of engine in order. Letter A (or any other letter) 
is package designation, for instance, S-571-6-A would 
mean package A of the 6th engine of order S-571. 




7 

Courtesy of American Locomotive Co. 

"B. Packages will also be stenciled with the gross, 
tare or net weights in pounds and cubic measurements 
(some foreign countries also require weights in kilos). 

"C. Unless advised to the contrary, packages com- 
prising the first engine will be numbered from '1' up, 
the second engine '51' up, the third engine '101' up, etc. 
etc. 

"8. Preparing Packing Lists. 

1 i A. Make packing lists for each package on standard 
form P D 66-A revised, and summary on form P D 66-B 
revised. The packing lists must be complete and specific- 
ally mention every part that goes into a box for which 
list is made. Nine copies of packing list, showing gross, 
tare and net weights in pounds and cubic measurements, 



636 EXPORT PACKING 

and summary thereof for each engine (some foreign 
countries also require weight in kilos), together with bills 
of lading marked 'For Export,' will be transmitted to 
Traffic Manager on date of shipment. 

"B. When an order of locomotives is divided between 
two or more plants, the packing lists must be identical 
for each plant. A uniform packing list will be prepared 
and approved by each plant involved, after which it will 
be printed, leaving blank the space for the name of the 
works. In the event of deviation from the packing list 
as printed, due to short shipment, proper notation will be 
made on the sheet affected. 

"C. Packing list must distinctly state whether the 
material is cased, uncased, crated or otherwise packed. 
For instance, shipments of globes or other glass in a 
barrel must be specified ' barrel' and not 'box, ' as the 
foreign customs regulations are such that the least pos- 
sible error in declaring consignments results in a heavy 
fine being imposed. These instructions must be strictly 
complied with. 

"D. Weights and measurements given in packing lists 
must agree with those stenciled on boxes, as packing list 
weights are used for making declaration for customs, and 
custom authorities check these with weights stenciled on 
boxes. Check carefully to see that weights are properly 
figured out and that net weight stenciled on box is 
correct." 

Railway Cars.— In an interview a large shipper de- 
scribed as follows the methods used in foreign shipments 
of freight and passenger cars : 

Substantially the same methods are used in the ship- 
ments of freight and passenger cars, both classes of cars 
being disassembled and packed practically in the same 
manner. In the case of very small freight cars and in 
that of small trolley cars, sometimes there is no disassem- 
bling, and the cars are sent out cased so that they may 
be put on the rails as soon as received. The reasons for 
this form of shipment are generally questions of urgency 
when it is desired to place the cars in commission at once, 




Courtesy of Curtiss Aeroplane & Motor Corp. 
Methods of Crating Aeroplane. 

Load of hull transmitted to frameicork of box by cross truss bracing. Note 
blocking to hold hull in place, precautions taken to prevent weaving so that pro- 
jecting wings do not come in contact with box. 




Courtesy of Curtiss Aeroplane t€ Motor Corp. 
Bracing of Aeroplane in Packing Case. 

Hull in horizontal position on cradle corresponding to bottom lines. Hull 
rigidly fixed in place by two main bents and blocking. .Padded auxiliary bents 
support "tail." As many auxiliary parts as possible are included in box. 

637 







: ^ t .Mm^. 




[ wi*W \^^/ 


j 

if*? " ' 


A 




• 


/ 


i^r 




.:« :' - .. _ " % 


^ 









Courtesy of Curtiss Aeroplane & Motor Corp. 
Crated Aeroplane. 
Crated aeroplane being hoisted on ship. 










Courtesy of Baldwin Locomotive Works. 
Locomotive Prepared for Shipment. 
Pershing type locomotive prepared for shipment without being knocked down 

638 






EXPORT SHIPPING OF BULKY ARTICLES 639 

or where there are no adequate means of assembling them 
after arrival at destination. A typical package of such a 
shipment would measure about 8' x 10' x 18', the case 
being constructed of 3" material and solidly bolted to- 
gether with long bolts running from one side to the other 
of the case. In addition to this the struts and other sup- 
ports of the package are unusually strong, as a package 
of this size requires the most careful designing. 

The great majority of shipments are, however, sent 
out disassembled, and the photograph herewith (see cut, 
page 631) clearly illustrates the method followed. This 
photograph shows one car complete as shipped. The 
trucks are shipped by themselves, as shown in the photo- 
graph, after the removal of all brass bushings and other 
brass material, as there is danger of this being stolen en 
route. These fittings, as well as other parts, are packed 
in a standard case. The floor of the car is shipped as one 
section, except in cases of exceptionally long cars, where 
the shipment may be composed of two sections. The two 
ends are placed back to back and shipped as one package, 
and the sides are treated in the same way as the ends. 
The roof may be shipped as one or two sections, except 
when composed of galvanized iron or steel, in which case 
the material is shipped knocked down and the roof built 
after arrival of goods at destination. This description 
applies as well to passenger as to freight cars. 

Motor Boats.— The export packing of the launch or 
motor boat offers some very interesting problems, as 
does that of the packing of the gasoline marine engine. 
In the case of the launch, the boat must be thoroughly 
protected, as many of these craft have had considerable 
sums spent on the finish of wooden and metal parts, and 
in addition there is the problem of the handling of a 
large mass which must not be subjected to undue strains. 
A prominent manufacturer of launches and engines 
writes as follows : u We have had considerable experience 
in the packing of launches and engines for export. In 
shipping a launch which is forwarded by steamer, the des- 
tination being the first port of call, we use a substantial 



640 EXPORT PACKING 

shipping cradle and cover the boat with a strong muslin 
cover to protect it from dirt while en route. This we have 
found very satisfactory from the standpoint that in han- 
dling the boat from the water to the steamer's deck and 
again back into the water at the port of destination, the 
people, in handling it, can readily see what they are doing. 
However, in the event of shipping boats that remain on 
deck while calls are made at other ports for discharging 
cargo, we then deem it advisable that the boat be thor- 
oughly crated or boxed. This, of course, is very expen- 
sive and it requires considerable work and material to 
make a substantial crate that will offer the proper pro- 
tection, and at the same time be strong enough to stand 
the weight of superimposed cargo. 

"The photograph (reproduced on page 632) will serve 
to give you an idea of the crating arrangement used by us 
for shipments. These photographs show a crate as made 
to protect a cabin gasoline launch 42 feet long, 9 feet 6 
inches beam, and 12 feet high, weighing approximately 
8 to 10 tons. This launch was shipped to Chile, and as 
you will note, it was necessary for it to be picked up at 
an angle so that it could be loaded into the hold of the 
ship. This, you will appreciate, is quite an undertaking, 
inasmuch as the crate must be built substantially and the 
launch fastened securely to the cradle while it is being 
handled in this position. 

"The method of crating launches is that a substantial 
cradle is bolted together under the launch, then the 
launch is securely lashed fore and aft to the cradle to 
prevent it from shifting. The uprights for the cradle are 
then fastened to the cradle, with braces across the top of 
the uprights as well as across the back of the uprights. 
The crating material is then fastened fore and aft from 
the ends and over the top with braces running diagonally 
as shown. This method stiffens the crate and relieves the 
boat of strain and the crate of excessive strain. The top 
of the crate is always tight and covered with tar paper, 
preventing the weather from injuring the launch. 

"In shipping large engines for export to Bombay, 



EXPORT SHIPPING OF BULKY ARTICLES 641 

India, or points of that distance, our usual practice, 
where the engine weighs live to ten thousand pounds, is 
to build a substantial cradle, bolt the engine to the cradle, 
and the box itself of tongued and grooved material, 
double thickness, laid diagonally. A box of this kind is 
substantial enough to withstand any amount of weight 
that can be piled on it in steamer's hold. 

"Our method in shipping boats to the Panama Canal 
has been to furnish shipping chocks, as a boat usually is 
always the last thing aboard a steamer and the first part 
of the cargo discharged. Therefore, the crate is unneces- 
sary at times, as with large packages there are no facili- 
ties for discharging it on a dock. ' ' 

Aeroplanes,— A large manufacturer and exporter of 
aeroplanes and flying boats has encountered several pe- 
culiar and unusual problems in making export shipments, 
chief of which, perhaps, is that of guarding against the 
buckling of his very long and comparatively light cases 
in the process of loading and unloading. The minimum 
dimensions of the cases in which the hulls of these ma- 
chines are shipped are 43' x 12' 8V2" x 10' 5" — a total 
of 5,673 cubic feet, or about 142 measurement tons. This 
manufacturer supplies a number of highly interesting 
photographs, which may be referred to on pages 632, 637, 
638. However, it is to be noted that the engineering staff 
of this company is now engaged in a series of researches 
and experiments looking to the solving of the delicate 
and serious problem of so staying these long and light 
cases that no danger from buckling can be involved. 

In shipments of this description there is not only the 
question of shipping the entire hull intact in order to 
facilitate quick erection on the field, and the construction 
of a box that will offer adequate protection to the hull 
during shipment, but there is also the question of meeting 
railway requirements of "clearance widths' ' (when maxi- 
mum width is 13' 6" over the projecting wings). In the 
shipment of one exceptionally large machine required 
during the war by the French Government, and to be 
delivered ready for operation, it was necessary to employ 



642 EXPORT PACKING 

two canal boats lashed together, and on one occasion par- 
tially to wreck a bridge over the canal through which the 
shipment had to pass on its way to tide-water. It is 
to be noted from the photographs that the load of the 
hull is transmitted to the framework of the box by means 
of cross truss-bracing. Various blocking arrangements, 
cushions filled with excelsior and braces, hold the hull in 
place, special precaution being taken to prevent weaving 
so that the projecting wings do not come in contact with 
the box. 

In general, the side walls of boxes are made of two 
layers of boards, completely lined with heavy waterproof 
paper. All metal parts of the machine are liberally cov- 
ered with vaseline, and all wires wrapped with paper. 

The bottoms of the cases have supporting skids, bev- 
eled off at the ends. Special attention is paid to the 
waterproof protection of the tops of cases, and all cor- 
ners are strongly reenforced by iron banding which, in 
the instance of the waterproof tops, extends all around 
the cases. 

So far as possible, auxiliary parts are included in 
the shipping cases for the hulls, but in many instances the 
panel or wing boxes are packed flat in special cases, sep- 
arated by spring board slats which serve as cradles, these 
boxes being intended for vertical shipment; skids are 
provided on both tops and bottoms. 

Further details regarding these shipments will be 
noted in captions to the several cuts. 



CHAPTER XXV 

PACKING PRACTICES IN EXPORTING SUNDRY 

COMMODITIES 

EVERY phase of export packing has been exhaus- 
tively treated in great detail in this volume. The 
construction of cases and crates, the making of 
bales, the shipment of bags and bundles, the kinds of lum- 
ber to be used, nailing and strapping, protection against 
pilfering, the interior packing of cases — all have been 
dwelt upon. In this chapter will appear quotations from 
letters illustrating the practices of prominent American 
manufacturers and shippers as applying to the export 
shipments of their particular products, which it is hoped 
and believed will prove both interesting and helpful to 
other shippers, not only of the same products but of mer- 
chandise comparable to that here mentioned, so far as 
packing requirements at least are concerned. The ex- 
cerpts given below should be interpreted in the light of 
the fact that they represent actual practice, and that such 
practice may, in certain cases, be susceptible of improve- 
ment. 

Before proceeding, however, to a resume of some of 
the more striking and important from among the hun- 
dreds of letters received by the author, reference may 
here briefly be made to one feature of shipping for export 
which has not previously been extensively discussed. 

Crating Together Small Boxes.— Certain advantages 
may be gained, when boxes of quite small size are shipped, 
by combining in one shipping package several of 
the small cases and strapping them into a crate, 
preferably with metal banding, although this is some- 
times accomplished by the use of wooden cleats. The ad- 
vantage referred to is most notable in the saving of han- 
dling charges, which may be imposed either at port of 

643 



644 EXPORT PACKING 

shipment or at ports of transhipment or ultimate destina- 
tion at a stated rate per package, rather than at a rate 
on a weight basis. In a great many countries and in vari- 
ous ports of the world, ranging from Buenos Aires to 
Constantinople, charges for landing from steamer to 
wharf, carriage from wharf to custom house, porterage 
in and from the custom house, etc., may be based on 
the unit handled, no matter what its weight. In such in- 
stances the charge on a small box of corn starch, for ex- 
ample, will be identically the same as the charge on six 
boxes of corn starch if they are crated together, making 
one piece for handling purposes. Furthermore, there is 
the consideration of ocean freight charges, which, as has 
been repeatedly emphasized, are more often than not on 
the basis of the measurement, not the weight ton. If small 
cases are shipped individually the measurement of each 
may involve a fraction of a cubic foot, which will be 
counted as a whole foot in assessing the freight charge, 
which is usually on the basis of even feet. The aggregate 
measurement of a shipment of a number of individual 
small cases may, therefore, very much exceed the meas- 
urement which will be made of a combination of the same 
number of small cases, if strapped together and shipped 
as one package. 

A great many kinds of merchandise are customarily 
shipped in small boxes, including not only such products 
as corn starch and raisins, but, as will be noted in the 
chapter in this volume devoted to hardware, makers of 
small electric fan motors are accustomed to pack them 
individually in cases, crating three or more individual 
boxes together into a single shipping package. Hand 
sewing machines are usually packed in small individual 
wooden boxes, two, three or four of which are strapped 
together into a single crate, usually in this case with 
wooden cleats. A photograph submitted by a manufac- 
turer of stove polish, reproduced on page 620, shows the 
method of crating together small boxes of this product, 
two or more of which are strapped together as illustrated. 
Each case is individually bound with iron to give it 



PACKING SUNDRY COMMODITIES 645 

strength and also to minimize the possibility of pilfering. 

German exporters, before the war, were reported as 
utilizing this method of crating together small individual 
boxes into a single shipping crate and as having intro- 
duced a variation of this kind of shipping, which indeed 
has not been unknown to some American shippers. When 
such shipments were dispatched to Central American 
destinations and to some other countries where import 
duties are levied on the basis of gross weights, arrange- 
ments were made with the ship's carpenters before dis- 
charging packages of this description from the ship's 
hold to knock off the outside wooden crating which held 
together the individual small boxes, thus saving the 
importers the necessity of paying duties on the weight of 
the wooden crating which held the individual units to- 
gether. This may be a rather delicate undertaking in a 
number of respects, but the thought and study brought 
to bear on shipping problems thus illustrated may well 
be taken as an example and inspiration to all export 
shippers. 

Proceeding now to a review of some of the letters 
received from important manufacturing concerns describ- 
ing their practices in export packing, the following are 
recommended as deserving of careful reading and study : 

Provisions.— For many years the great packing com- 
panies of the United States have been in the front rank 
of aggressive and constructive exporters. Indeed, they 
represent the type of exporter, more or less a pioneer in 
America who, by investing large sums in foreign coun- 
tries, has performed that double service which is the ideal 
of export work; that is, while expanding American export 
trade they have also brought efficiency and development 
to more or less primitive countries. 

The export packing done by the great provision com- 
panies is bewildering in its volume and complexity, and 
there is probably no angle of the work that has not been 
considered in this multiform packing endeavor. For 
example, the experimental side has been most carefully 
developed, and all sorts of drop and tension tests have 



646 EXPORT PACKING 

been applied to the different packages. In addition to 
this the most exhaustive research work has been done 
with two trip packages, or packages sent to foreign conn- 
tries and then returned simply to see the effect of the 
voyage. Moreover, results have been consistently and 
thoroughly checked, and inspectors have been constantly 
at work studying the conditions in foreign fields and re- 
porting back home what these conditions were. For ex- 
ample, a style of packing will be adopted which seems to 
satisfy requirements, but the shipping department is not 
content with mere appearances. This package is sent 
out and all of its vicissitudes are observed. If it has to 
go through the test of being tossed to the ground from 
the head of a West Indian negro this fact is noted, or if 
other conditions have to be met a study is made of these 
conditions. Because of these facts it would well be pos- 
sible to devote a large book to the export packing of a 
great provision house. It has been sought, however, in 
this chapter to present certain typical containers that 
represent quite a wide range of usefulness. 

Photographs supplied by a very large packing com- 
pany are reproduced on page 647 and are in general 
sufficiently described by the captions printed under each 
cut. The following points are, however, to be noted. In 
the shipment of smoked meats cases are constructed with 
open spaces on both sides in order to give air circulation, 
the meat contents being protected from rats and other 
vermin by a wire netting, as illustrated. 

Large cases holding 500 or 600 pounds of hams or 
similar products packed in salt, shipped most generally 
to Europe but also to certain southern markets, are 
usually protected at the ends by hickory bands, which 
this company has found preferable to iron bands in the 
shipment of these goods, thus preventing injury to steve- 
dores or others. 

Shipments of lard compound in tins are commonly 
packed by this concern in crates as illustrated in photo- 
graphs on page 647. The advantages of the crates are 
that in certain countries duties are paid on the gross 




Courtesy of Swift & Co. 
Shipment of Smoked Meats and Ham. 

(Left) Case contains smoked meats, is constructed with open spaces for 
ventilation, meats being protected from vermin by wire netting. (Right) The 
ends of this case, containing from 500 to 600 pounds of ham, are protected by 
hickory bands. 




•flMMPANY 




Courtesy of Swift & Co. 
Crated Lard Tins. 

In this instance advantage of crating lies in reduction of duties paid on 
gross xceiglvt. 

647 




Courtesy of 8. D. Warren & Co. 

Casing of Paper. 

Cases made of %" lumber containing 500 pounds of paper. Ends of cases 
are cleated on both sides. 




Tops and bottoms of bales are of solid white pine. Waterproof paper and 
burlap form protective covering. 



PACKING SUNDRY COMMODITIES 649 

weights of the packages which are materially reduced 
by the use of crates, but which at the same time sup- 
ply a substantial package for shipping purposes. It 
might at first glance be thought that a good many of the 
tins would be damaged because their sides are exposed 
through the crating, yet it is reported by this company 
that complaints are very rare indeed and that even 
though a tin may occasionally be punctured and some of 
the contents leak out, yet the company's customers figure 
that the net saving in the duties through the use of these 
crates justifies the risk of damage in transit to some of 
the tins when thus shipped. 

Paper.— The effect of the war on the export of paper 
is clearly revealed in the government reports since ex- 
ports of paper increased from $46,393,655 in 1917 to 
$54,170,134 in 1918, and $86,983,063 in 1919. The war 
operated in a number of interesting ways. The United 
States was practically the only country in a position to 
do a world business, the Webb Bill led to combinations 
in trade beyond seas, and in addition we had a great 
increase in the intensity of the merchandizing drive on 
the part of individuals and concerns doing an export 
business. Undoubtedly, also, the war operated favorably 
in the sense of inducing paper exporters, both jobbers 
and mills, to give serious attention to the requirements 
of foreign countries with reference to grades and sizes 
of paper that differ from those in domestic use, and also 
in creating a disposition on the part of the mills to make 
runs that the foreign customer requires. 

If it were suitable there is no doubt that a bale would 
represent the ideal package for paper. There would be 
a saving in measurements and consequently freight, the 
weight would be less and ease of handling would be great- 
ly facilitated. Moreover, the danger of case breakage is 
eliminated with a baled package, and a bale will stand an 
amount of bad handling that would make the most sturdy 
case turn faint. However, as a rule, fine papers must be 
cased, although even with this class of goods European 
mills do more baling than American mills. 



650 EXPORT PACKING 

A house whose papers are well known in many foreign 
countries sends a photograph (see cut, page 648) of its 
standard export case and states that: "A standard case 
to carry 500 pounds of paper is made up from %" lumber. 
The ends of the cases are cleated on both sides giving a 
double nailing surface. There is a waterproof wrapper 
in each of the corners, a waterproof lining for the entire 
case, and inside of this a heavy plain lining with card- 
board in the bottom. 

' ' After the case is filled with paper, a cardboard is 
placed on top and the wrapper is folded in so that when 
the lid is nailed down, the case is practically waterproof. 

" Steel straps are placed around each end of the case 
and steel bands around the body of the case. These are 
tightly drawn and fastened. The straps around the body 
of the case are not nailed because of the possibility of 
injury to the paper. A small staple is used to prevent 
the straps from rolling up when being handled. 

" Export bales are covered with heavy waterproof 
paper, sealed, a heavy plain wrapper unsealed, and then 
burlap, this latter sewed at the sides and ends. A hard- 
wood board with four wooden strips running across it, 
is placed at the top and bottom of the bale. 

"The bale is prepared on the bed of the press and 
after being wrapped is submitted to a pressure of 24 
tons and while under this pressure four steel bands are 
drawn on and fastened with steel buckles. The bale is 
then taken from the press and staples are put over the 
hooks and in the cleats to hold everything in place.' ' 

Another house doing an active export trade in paper 
sends photographs illustrating baling of its products, 
pages 648, 655, 656, and the following summary of the 
method employed : 

The photographs represent typical bales of paper and 
this method is used for large or small bales. The bales 
shown in the photograph were prepared for muleback 
transportation and formed part of a shipment to Co- 
lombia. The weight in this case was approximately 200 
pounds per bale. 



PACKING SUNDRY COMMODITIES 651 

The bales are made up with solid wood tops and bot- 
toms, the boards being new %" white pine and the cleats 
-%" material of the same wood. The first protective cov- 
ering is burlap and the second a high grade waterproof 
paper. The bottom of the bale is first put in the press-, 
then a piece of burlap, then a sheet of waterproof paper, 
then the commercial paper that is being shipped, and on 
top the same materials are placed as those on the bottom. 
This is shown in the first photograph. 

The second photograph illustrates how the metal 
bands are put on the bale after pressure has been applied, 
the bands being fastened with a special non-slip patent 
buckle. The use of the buckle obviates the necessity of 
nailing. 

The bales are then taken from the press, the water- 
proof paper folded in and the burlap tightly sewed, as 
shown in the third photograph. The fourth photograph 
shows a number of completed bales ready for shipment. 

Shipments of roll news are usually sent out from the 
United States uncrated although this does not imply that 
such is the best method. On page 656 is shown a photo- 
graph of roll news in crates from an American mill. 
Commercially this is too expensive a package, although 
rolls crated in this way do not suffer damage from steve- 
dores ' hooks, from cutting by cables, from bursting by 
falling, and so on, and certain European manufacturers 
have devised an inexpensive method of packing roll paper 
in which a very light crate is used. In any instance, how- 
ever, the question is whether the damage to the uncrated 
rolls is greater than the cost of crating. 

The Writing Paper Manufacturers' Association gives 
the following instructions for baling paper: 

"In shipments to overseas countries it is very im- 
portant to take into consideration the freights, especially 
in these days of very high freight rates. 

"It is equally important that proper protection be 
given to the paper in the way of packing, which will pre- 
vent damage to the goods by bad handling at loading and 
unloading points. 



652 EXPORT PACKING 

"In some countries, particularly on the West Coast 
of South America, where the cargo is usually lightered 
from the steamer to the pier, sometimes under very rough 
sea conditions, it happens that packages are broken open 
and the contents very seriously damaged. 

"For any but the better grades of paper an export 
bale is preferred to a case as the bale reduces consider- 
ably the measurements, therefore reduces the marine 
freight, yet protects the paper sufficiently, especially if 
the regulation bale is adopted and carefully made. 

"In some countries the port charges, usually very 
high, are assessed on the gross weight of the shipping 
package, thus favoring European competition where bal- 
ing is invariably the method of packing adopted. 

"While hydraulic baling is preferable it is by no 
means imperative; as a matter of fact, a better bale is 
often made as a jack bale, as mentioned below, by the 
ordinary method employed in some mills, than where a 
hydraulic apparatus is used. 

"The specifications for the standard export bale are 
as follows : Unless otherwise instructed, reams are to be 
placed flat in bales. At rare intervals, sheets are required 
so large that it becomes necessary to have each ream 
folded once. If reams are folded they are to be placed 
in the bale with folded edges alternating. 

"If order calls for sheets ream wrapped, each ream 
is taken separately and entirely wrapped with strong 
paper and sealed with sealing wax or tape ; gummed tape 
is preferred because it leaves no impression in the better 
papers such as M. F., S. C, Writings and Boards. 

"For each bale two wooden heads are provided. 
These heads are preferably constructed as follows : Two 
layers of %" lumber nailed together, the boards in the 
upper layer running opposite to the boards of the 
under layer. All heads are one quarter inch longer and 
wider than the size of sheets to be baled. (For example: 
For sheets cut 24" x 40" the heads should measure 241/4 " 
x40 1 / 4.") The practice obtaining in some mills of put- 
ting heavy wooden cleats on single boards at the top and 



PACKING SUNDRY COMMODITIES 653 

bottom should be substituted by the above method, inas- 
much as the steamship companies measure to the extreme 
dimensions of a bale and charge accordingly — a half inch 
addition being counted as a whole, and in a shipment of a 
considerable quantity making quite a difference in the 
freights payable. 

"The regulation or standard bale is 500 pounds gross, 
although bales are often heavier than this. Occasionally 
smaller size bales are specified for which differentials 
should be charged to cover the additional costs. 

"The process of making the bale as a jack bale is 
about as follows : Place on a truck about three feet high 
two pieces of %" hand iron, lengthwise of the sheet. Then 
a wooden head goes on above the band iron. Next two 
sheets of heavy screenings or strong sulphite paper are 
laid down, same being of sufficient length to cover one- 
half of the bale. A mill doing a great deal of baling has 
found most efficient and even stronger than burlap, which 
is often used instead of paper, what is known as 'Bull 
Hide Wrapper,' of a weight 24" x 36" — 230 pounds. 

"The reams are then piled on neatly and evenly; 
above the whole a duplicate of the bottom equipment is 
placed — first sulphite wrappers and finally a wooden 
head. Then four cross strips of %" No. 22 band iron are 
laid upon the wooden head and the pressure is applied by 
jack, where this is used, or by hydraulic press where 
available. Hydraulic bales are built in the press. When 
a certain pressure is reached, with the degree of which 
the finishers will soon become familiar, the jack or press 
is stopped, the wrappers are neatly folded in and fast- 
ened strongly. After this is properly done the cross 
strips of band iron (which are of sufficient length to 
reach around the bale and lap) are drawn tight and 
buckled with one inch buckles or seals supplied by the 
Signode Company; the bands running lengthwise are 
then tightened and buckled. If buckles are used a piece 
of burlap or canvas is wound around the bands at the 
buckles to form a protection for the edges of the paper; 
then pressure is relieved and the bale is complete. 



654 EXPORT PACKING 

"Mills not equipped with hydraulic presses might find 
it advantageous to correspond with the makers of inex- 
pensive instruments used for tightening the iron bands 
and finishing the buckling. Bulky paper can be baled with 
this system without a baling press of any kind, but care 
should be taken to buy the instrument for %" i ron bands 
(thickness No. 22), as nothing less will carry safely a 
standard bale of 500 pounds. Some mills have met with 
failure in trying this system with %" instruments. A set 
of instruments consisting of two ratchets and one sealing 
device formerly cost $30. 

"For the more expensive grade of paper it may be 
best to add burlaps to the baling press, when this com- 
modity will have returned to a more normal price." 

The illustrations shown with this text (see page 661) 
are published by the association for the purpose of show- 
ing baling methods recommended in the above bulletin. 

A large San Francisco firm of general exporters deal- 
ing chiefly with the Orient, calls attention, in a letter de- 
voted particularly to exports of paper, to many com- 
plaints received from its customers in the Far East which 
refer to the practice of some paper makers of shipping in 
packages merely wrapped in heavy paper and bound with 
light rope; in consequence of which practice the covers 
are frequently entirely torn away by the time the ship- 
ment arrives at destination and the identifying mark lost. 
In shipments of paper in compressed bales, burlapped 
and crated, a method of packing considered ideal for cer- 
tain papers, consignees in the Orient have found that the 
board was not strong enough and the strap too light to 
stand rough handling. Complaint has also been made of 
shipments of book paper in cases of too light or over- 
dried lumber, which arrived broken with resulting fraying 
of the edges of the sheets of the paper, all of which had 
to be trimmed before they could be used. Customers of 
this export house insist that every ream of book or other 
high-priced paper must be ream wrapped, and that more 
attention be paid to the marking in order that identifica- 
tion at destination may be easy, each case of one weight 




Courtesy of National Paper & Type Co. 
Banding of Paper Bales. 

Illustrates method of fastening metal bands with buckles after pressure 
has been applied. 




Courtesy of National Paper & Type Co. 
Final Packing of Paper Bales. 
Waterproof paper and burlap folded and sewed. 

655 




Courtesy of National Paper & Type Co. 

Bales of Paper Keady for Shipment. 

These bales were prepared for muleback transportation and formed part of a 
shipment to Colombia. 




Eolls of Newsprint in Crates. 
Bolls crated in this ivay do not suffer damage from handling. 

656 



PACKING SUNDRY COMMODITIES 657 

to be numbered consecutively, should specifications con- 
tain several different weights, and the weight sheet to be 
in exact accordance with both net and gross weights. 

A large New York export house, commenting on de- 
mands which are sometimes made on American manufac- 
turers for the casing of shipments of newsprint and other 
papers, remarks that loss in shipping the American way 
rarely reaches 2 per cent, which is actually less than the 
cost of boxing would amount to. Therefore, it is be- 
lieved that the American practice is preferable, but it 
is pointed out that pressure ought, if possible, to be 
brought to bear on the steamship companies to reduce the 
use of hooks in loading on board vessel at American 
ports, since practically all the damage comes from the 
careless and indiscriminate use of such hooks. 

Specifications for packing of the General Engineer 
Depot of the United States Army include the following: 
"Boofing paper will be shipped in rolls, wrapped in stout 
paper well gummed down, with cloth pasted over the ends 
and on to the sides ; or equal method. Booting paper in 
rolls should be stacked on ends, and away from steam 
pipes." 

Leather. — With an increase of more than four hundred 
per cent in leather exports in 1919 as compared with 1918, 
the exports in 1919 amounting to $218,784,060, the United 
States takes its place in the front rank of the great 
leather exporting countries of the world. It is true that 
a continuation of this immense volume of business is not 
to be expected as conditions become normal, but none the 
less it is certain that a considerable portion of the gain 
will be conserved. 

It is gratifying to note that manufacturers of all 
leather products have been keenly mindful of the neces- 
sity of good packing and well considered protection for 
this commodity. Humidity, oil, abrasion, and a number 
of other perils must be guarded against in overseas ship- 
ments of leather, and the progressive exporter has made 
every effort to meet the various requirements. 

A photograph shown on page 662 illustrates pack- 



658 EXPORT PACKING 

ing of high grade calf skins. The letter of the manufac- 
turer accompanying the photographs reads as follows: 

"We consider the item of packing most important for 
the American exporters competing in foreign markets, 
and we are therefore gladly giving you some data in con- 
nection with the packing of our products. No general 
rule can be applied for packing, inasmuch as the packing 
should be made adaptable to the rules prevailing in some 
countries, this being very important to avoid payment of 
overcharges by the consignees. 

"As a rule, we always endeavor to do our packing so 
as to facilitate handling, wrapping our leather in such a 
way as to have the goods entirely covered with gray kraft 
paper and tied with tape. These bundles are in turn 
packed in cases made of high-grade lumber, so that they 
will be as tight as a wooden case can be. Before the goods 
are placed in these cases, each case is lined with water- 
proof paper, the leather is then put in and a layer of 
waterproof paper placed on the top and the covers put 
on. To give more strength, each case is bound on either 
end and in the middle with %" box straps. 

"The marking of the cases is also~a very important 
item and should receive proper attention from exporters. 
We mark each case in two places with outside dimensions 
of box, namely, length, breadth and thickness, and with 
the gross, legal and net weights, together with initials of 
the consignee and the port of destination. We sometimes 
add the route by which the package is sent to facilitate 
its delivery." 

A large shipper writes : "Patent leather is japanned 
by covering with enamel and baking either in the heat of 
the sun or in an oven. Therefore, it is very susceptible 
to heat or cold and must be very carefully packed to pre- 
vent sticking or cracking. 

"Leather is sold in * sides,' which are just what the 
word w^ould indicate — that is, the hide of the animal is cut 
down the back, and the hide from each side constitutes a 
'side' of leather. A side of cow leather measures about 
18 square feet. 



PACKING SUNDRY COMMODITIES 659 

"In preparing for packing, the sides are folded over a 
square frame made of two parallel strips of wood joined 
by two parallel strips of cardboard. Upon this frame a 
half dozen or sometimes a dozen sides are folded over 
each other in three folds, forming a bundle that is ap- 
proximately square. The sides are laid on top of one 
another in pairs, with the finished or hair surfaces toward 
each other, and between each side of a pair as well as 
between the pairs there is a layer of cotton felt. 

"The sides are wrapped with wrapping paper, or, in 
shipment to most ports, with waterproof paper, and they 
are packed in a. flat wooden case made to measure. The 
cases are usually iron strapped, the straps being nailed to 
the case. If ordered, additional protection from moisture 
and from thieves is provided by lining the case with tin, 
the top of the tin inner case being soldered on ; sometimes 
an inner case of wood, instead of tin is used. Especially 
heavy leathers — not patent — are sometimes packed in 
bales instead of cases, and chicken wire is wrapped 
around the bales to prevent theft. " 

Another large manufacturer of patent leather states : 
"One dozen sides of patent leather are packed to a 
bundle, the finished sides being face to face. Cotton wad- 
ding is placed between these sides. Bundles are folded 
in four folds by folding first through the middle then 
folding in half again. On the outside of each bundle, a 
tally of the foot measurement with the grade and weight 
is pasted, as well as a label: 'Do not handle until thor- 
oughly warm.' 

"Leather is then ready for casing. The bundles are 
tiered, or piled, one on top of the other as evenly as pos- 
sible, and an actual measurement is taken so that the 
goods may fit the case snugly to prevent them from shift- 
ing. Goods are packed, as a rule, about twenty to twenty- 
five dozen to a case measuring from ten to fifteen cubic 
feet. Larger goods, hides of about eighteen to nineteen 
square feet, are packed about fifteen to twenty dozen to a 
case. These cases are lined with waterproof paper to 
prevent as much moisture as possible from getting to the 



660 EXPORT PACKING 

goods. As these cases are faily large, averaging about 
three hundred to five hundred pounds, it is advisable that 
%" stock be used, with iron straps and cleats as well as 
nails, so that they may be safe and secure in transit. 

"Patent kid is packed the same as the sides as far as 
the cotton wadding is concerned, but there are two dozen 
skins to a bundle, and they are not folded but are laid 
flat. About twenty-five to thirty dozen skins are packed 
in a case. The cases being much smaller and lighter in 
weight, it will not be necessary to use such heavy stock 
as for side leathers; in these cases, %" stock is used. 

"When packed, the cases are stenciled as to mark 
(representing name and address), number, gross and net 
weights, as well as measurements. All cases containing 
leather should also be stenciled: "Keep dry and do not 
store next to any boilers.' It is preferable to have such 
indications appear not only in English but in the lan- 
guage of the country to which shipped.' ' 

It may be pointed out that considerable discretion 
must be used by shippers of patent leather in the choice 
of material with which to separate the japanned sides of 
the different skins. Tissue paper sometimes used for 
this purpose, often, when shipped through hot waters or 
across the equator, adheres to the enamel and results in 
loss of as high as 60 per cent of the shipment. Further- 
more, leather ought not to be shipped in uncased bundles 
when it is possible to avoid so doing. Certainly such 
bundles ought never to be protected merely by paper 
which is almost certain to be destroyed in the course of 
shipment with loss of the identifying marks. There must 
be adequate protection by waterproofing materials as 
well as paper linings, strong outside burlap wrappings 
and every insurance against damage from hooks. 

Leather Belting.— American leather belting has made 
an excellent place for itself in export trade, and no small 
part of this success has been due to the care with which 
the goods are packed . There are a number of interesting 
angles in belting packing, although the main point is 
adequate protection against humidity. In the photo- 




Courtesy of Writing Paper Manufacturers' Ass'n 
Method of Baling Sheet Paper. 
For full description see text. 



BALED FOR EXPORT 




Courtesy of Writing Paper Manufacturers' Ass'n 
Baling of Paper for Export. 
Note method of handing and marking. 

661 




Courtesy of Barnet Leather Co., Inc. 
Packing of Calf Skins. 

Leather bundles Wrapped in kraft paper and tied with tapes are placed in 
case. Note that case is lined with waterproof paper. 




Courtesy of Chas. A. Schieren Co. 
Packing of Leather Belting. 
Process of baling; belting is first wrapped in rubber cloth. 

662 



PACKING SUNDRY COMMODITIES 663 

graphs annexed to this chapter stress has been laid on 
the waterproof coverings provided for the belting, and 
this point must be most carefully considered. Strength 
of package is also of great importance, as the contents of 
this class of shipment are not only of considerable value 
but the weight of the case is fairly great. 

A well-known manufacturing company submits a 
statement relative to its export practice, to be consid- 
ered in connection with photographs reproduced on pages 
662 and 667, which may be summarized as follows : 

Leather belting is put up in rolls packed in burlap 
with rubber cloth, the waterproofing material being on 
the inside next to the belting. The burlap used is of 
heavy texture, 10 ounces, 40 inches wide, the bales of the 
belting weighing from 600 to 700 pounds, usually in rolls 
of about 100 meters length (328 feet). Five or six rolls 
securely fastened together so that they will not rub or 
the ends become loose while in transit are placed in suit- 
able, strong and heavy wooden cases, usually of 1*4 " 
stock, securely strapped with band iron. The rolls are 
usually tied with heavy rope and the waterproof cloth and 
burlap sewed securely with 30-ply Osprey sewing twine. 
Details of the methods adopted by this concern in its 
export packing will be observed from the photographs 
x to which reference is made. 

Packing of Automobile Tires.— The value of the ex- 
ports of automobile tires during the fiscal year 1919 was 
over six times that of 1914, and in the case of a number 
of countries as much money was spent in the United 
States for tires as these same countries spent for auto- 
mobiles. For example, Argentina gave us 82 cents in 
orders for tires for every dollar spent for American 
automobiles, and for every commercial or passenger car 
sent to the Argentine approximately $1,080 was spent for 
tires. Another interesting fact about the Argentine ex- 
port trade is that orders for American tires during 1919 
were 83 times as large as the orders from the same coun- 
try during 1914. The value of our exports to Brazil in 
1919 was 56 times that of 1914, the exports to Chile ran 



664 EXPORT PACKING 

up to 106 times the value of those of 1914, and for every 
dollar spent by Chile for American automobiles during 
the past year approximately 79 cents were spent for tires. 
The value of our exports of tires to the Dutch East 
Indies in 1919 was 303 times that of the 1914 value, and 
for every automobile we sold to this section of the world 
we sold $304 worth of tires. In the case of British India 
the value of tire exports was 131 times that of 1914. 

These figures might be continued, but the showing 
would merely amount to the same thing, and the net proof 
would be that the export business for the tire manufac- 
turer is to-day decidedly worth while and that the Ameri- 
can tire in the language of a well-known manufacturer is 
a "good tire. ,, It is possible that under normal com- 
petition these percentages will not be maintained, but the 
great tire factories of the United States are going after 
world business in a determined way and there is no doubt 
that the volume of exports in American tires will con- 
tinue to be large. In their work the tire companies are 
carrying the fight into the customer's own country % as 
even a cursory glance through foreign publications with 
their large space advertisemerits of American tire fac- 
tories will show. 

An automobile tire is a very valuable product and the 
manufacturers are making a careful study of the export 
situation and are producing a good package. The pro- 
tection from humidity is adequate, and the opportunity 
presented for filling the case to its maximum is intelli- 
gently taken advantage of. 

Attention has been called during the course of this dis- 
cussion of export packing, to the advisability of filling up 
open spaces with small packaged goods, and in the case 
of the automobile tire a splendid opportunity is offered 
to fill the "hole in the doughnut." The company, to 
whose courtesy the author is indebted for the photo- 
graphs in this chapter (see cuts pages 668 and 673) 
packs the "hole" snugly with the inner tube boxes, a 
practice that is fairly general. 

The manager of the shipping department of a house 



PACKING SUNDRY COMMODITIES 665 

doing one of the largest international trades in a varied 
line of rubber goods, says as to his packing methods that 
there is no seal affixed to the cases and the only means 
used to prevent pilfering is the nailed strapping. All 
identification marks are kept from cases. Attention was 
called to the fact that in the case of this organization a 
nailless strapping was used for a short time, but it was 
found that it would not stay on the cases. Consequently a 
return was immediately made to the nailed strap. 

This company makes a very large variety of goods 
and the packing is not standardized except for a few 
items. The goods as a rule are packed in accordance with 
customers' specifications and customs requirements. In 
shipping to Great Britain no straps are affixed to the 
cases, but shipments are confined to one or two of the 
largest steamship lines which give particular attention 
to the proper handling of freight. 

It is commonly believed that a method of reducing 
the space occupied by a package consists in putting the 
cleats or battens on the inside of the case. The concern 
under discussion, however, states that it tried this method 
but found that the support given the cases was not as 
satisfactory as when the cleat or batten was on the out- 
side. 

This company is constantly experimenting with two- 
way shipments, or shipments sent out to be returned in 
the original cases in order to check results of the packing 
method, and very close touch is kept with its different 
foreign branches so that the success or failure of the 
various packings may be determined. In addition to fol- 
lowing the instructions of customers, or the requirements 
of local customs regulations, a great deal of the packing 
is done along lines advised by the different branches over- 
seas. 

There is a further thought that operates in the work 
oi this company. It has been found that in many coun- 
tries it is possible to sell cases for two or three times 
their original cost. This factor reduces quite materially 
the cost of packing, and also makes possible a more ex- 



666 EXPORT PACKING 

pensive package than might otherwise be used. It also 
explains the preference of the company for cases rather 
than bales. 

Another large shipper states: "The question of ex- 
port packing is a pretty large one and must be dealt 
with individually, no fixed rule being applicable to all 
commodities. 

"Buyers in some countries require goods shipped in 
cases, while others require them shipped in bundles. 
Some goods are dutiable on gross weight, some freight 
rates are charged on cubical contents of cases, while 
duties on others are assessed on the net weights. 

"It is therefore necessary for any manufacturer to 
know the laws pertaining to a particular shipment that 
he desires to make, and it is then up to the manufacturer 
to arrange his packing in the most advantageous way for 
his customer. 

"As regards automobile tires and tubes, we ship them 
both in bales and in boxes. Great care must be taken in 
each instance to guarantee safety in delivery, to avoid 
damage, to insure against pilferage and injury which 
may be sustained by the use of grappling hooks, draw 
hooks, etc. 

"In arranging for our shipments in cases, we number 
our cases, say, from one to six. Each case has its par- 
ticular cubical contents and will receive a certain number 
of certain sizes of tires, themselves nested in the case, 
and in the open parts we pack tubes, and on either side 
of the tires a certain proportion of advertising material, 
so that when the case is complete it is practically a solid 
mass, securely nailed and strapped with steel strapping 
around each edge, properly marked, after having all. been 
placed in a so-called waterproof paper package. 

"All our boxes are marked by specially cut type. We 
do not rely upon hand marks. We mark our boxes on all 
four sides and in some cases both ends, so that they are 
easily distinguishable in a large lot of boxes ready to go 
on or off ship or remain stored in a warehouse. 

"Our weights are always given in both standard and 




Courtesy of Chas. A. Schieren Co. 
Leather Belting Tied Prior to Baling. 

Belting tied to prevent rubbing and loosening of ends. Note method of pro- 
tecting belting against rubbing of cord. 




Courtesy of Chas. A. Schieren Co. 
Packing of Leather Belting. 

(Left) Belting is wrapped in waterproof cloth and burlap, it te sewn with 
W ply Osprey twine. (Right) Cases contain baled rolls of leather belting. 

667 




Courtesy of Miller Rubber Co. 

Packing of Automobile Tires. 

Shows method of nesting tires in case 42 x 40 x 32". Note waterproof paper 
lining. Lid is pressed down, thus economizing space. 




lourtesy of Miller Rubber Co. 

Casing of Automobile Tires. 

Another method of packing tires. In this instance tires are too large to be 
nested as shown in previous illustration. 

668 



PACKING SUNDRY COMMODITIES 669 

kilo weights, and our marking is necessarily very clear. 
Our boxes are all made of %" surfaced on one side ma- 
terial with a reenforcement in each corner, securely 
nailed with cement-coated nails. " 

Bath Tubs and Sanitary Ware.— The following- is an 
excerpt from a letter received from a prominent manufac- 
turer of sanitary installations who does a large export 
business: "Packing as related to export shipments is one 
of the most important steps in building up a permanent 
and lasting export trade. It is the finishing touch of the 
manufacturer's effort to supply our foreign trade with 
his product, and for this reason should have the most 
careful attention of any operation in the process of manu- 
facture and completion of the order. 

"Aside from this viewpoint, it must be considered 
that an export shipment receives exceptionally rough 
handling, is subject to various climatic conditions, dif- 
ferent methods of handling and transhipment at times. 
The manufacturer who tries to use the same packing for 
export as domestic business is making a grave mistake 
and adding to the bad reputation which the careless 
American exporter has acquired abroad. 

"Our products, sanitary bathroom and plumbing fix- 
tures, are carefully crated in open slat crates but with 
the slats not more than V/ 2 " or 2" apart. The lumber 
used in the manufacture of crates is heavy %" stock, 
and the greatest care is taken when the ware is packed 
in the crates that it will take up the least possible space 
and yet stand the unusually rough handling to which ex- 
port shipments are subject. Packing is as much a trade 
as carpentry, and no definite instruction can be given, as 
circumstances and article to be shipped alter the case. 
However, it is advisable to put the best packers in an 
organization on export shipments. All crates should be 
iron strapped with at least a %" tough band strapping, 
and it is advisable to use a special instrument to draw 
these bands tightly around the crate. 

"The subject of marking crates for export shipment 
is an important one. Marks should always be stenciled 



670 EXPORT PACKING 

plainly— never put on 'free hand' with a marking brush, 
and a waterproof ink must be used. Each package should 
contain the customer's name or initials, port of entry, 
serial number on each crate as a rule, measurements in 
inches and net and gross weights in kilos if to a Latin 
country. If the destination is an inland point, both the 
inland city and the port of entry should be marked on 
the packages, as, for example, Paris via Le Havre, or 
Camaguey via Santiago. It is difficult to give definite in- 
structions which will hold good on all shipments, but the 
above will give a general impression of the ordinary ex- 
port shipment, and the improvement of each particular 
case is up to the individuals concerned." 

Another exporter of bath tubs and plumbers' supplies 
states: "Bath tubs we nest three to six in a crate 
strongly reenforced and bound with wrought iron bands. 
Miscellaneous fixtures, supplies and plumbers' brass 
goods we pack in barrels with reenforced heads. 

"We use great care in packing enamel ware and this 
class of material, and the few complaints we have re- 
ceived convince us our policy as regards packing for ex- 
port is well worth the care we exercise." 

A third manufacturer writes: "All roll rim bath 
tubs can be nested with as many as six tubs to one crate. 

"All of our enamel iron lavatories with the exception 
of those having pedestals and legs can be packed two to 
a crate. In some instances where a number of these 
lavatories are ordered, we pack several legs in one crate. 
Regarding our vitreous china lavatories, the same pack- 
ing is advised. 

"Our roll rim slop and kitchen sinks are crated two 
to a crate, but the flat rim kitchen sinks can be nested six 
to a crate. 

"All plain bowls for closet combinations are packed 
two to a crate, the tanks for each low type combina- 
tion being packed separately; the supply pipes and 
other brass fittings are packed together in one box, 
with the seats for all combinations packed together 
in another box. These boxes are securely packed 



PACKING SUNDRY COMMODITIES 671 

and closed so that none of the fittings can slip out. 

"Our flat back, sanex and roll rim urinals can be 
nested two in a crate in a very small cubic space. 

"We would state that our ware is packed in open 
crates for export shipment, as we have experimented 
with the open and closed cases and have found that less 
damage occurs in using the former method, the steamship 
people can see the contents and greater care is taken in 
handling shipments." 

Yet another large shipper writes: "It is customary 
for us to box all material for export with the exception of 
competition style baths, which we crate. Our boxes con- 
sist of lumber of %" thickness at top and bottom, and 
%" thickness on the sides. The fixtures are braced inside 
to prevent their rocking. These braces vary in number, 
according to the size of the fixture ; they are made of 1" 
lumber. Between the fixtures themselves and the wooden 
packing we use excelsior pads; these pads also vary in 
size; they average in their original state about 2" thick. 
Our packages are then strapped with iron bands. 

"Our crates are built on more or less the same prin- 
ciple — the same thickness of lumber as mentioned, and 
with the use of braces and excelsior pads inside, and on 
some styles of bath tubs we also use additional felt pads 
to protect the rims. _ This latter additional packing is 
particularly used on baths which are nested, that is to 
say, which are packed two or more in a crate. In these 
nests the weight of each bath is carried on a skeleton 
frame so that each fixture rides independently of the 
other, and the total weight of the contents of the crate is 
carried by the exterior packing. ' ' 

It should be noted in the shipment of bath tubs and 
sanitary ware that no little attention should be given to 
the customs regulations of the country of destination. It 
is almost always preferable that all nickel fittings, fau- 
cets, etc., be packed separately from the porcelain or 
cast iron fixtures, and properly and separately declared 
in accordance with the laws of the country of destination. 

Oil Cloth.— A well-known exporter of oil cloth states: 



672 EXPORT PACKING 

"The method of packing oil cloth depends largely upon 
the quality of goods shipped, but all kinds are prepared 
for packing in the same way, that is, the cloth, which is 
about fifty inches wide, is wrapped around a wooden pole 
or dowel, forming a close roll. 

"The rolls are usually packed beside and on top of 
each other in wooden cases. The cases are not lined, 
unless especially requested by the customer, in which case 
the extra protection is paid for by him. Two kinds of 
cases are used : light cases for shipping to ports near at 
hand; heavy cases for shipping to more distant ports. 
The light cases are built usually of 13/16" lumber. The 
ends, or heads, are reenforced with two cleats three inches 
wide and 16/16" thick, one at either side of the head and 
flush with the sides of the case. "Wire straps, %" wide, 
are nailed to the case close to the head, so that the nail 
drives through into the head as well as into the top of 
the case. Heavy cases are still more strongly reenforced. 
Four cleats instead of two are used, forming a square 
of cleats all around the head; sometimes these cleats are 
square cornered, sometimes mitered. Also, two sets of 
battens are nailed around the case, one about a third of 
the way from each end. Wire straps are nailed to the 
battens. 

"Bolls of goods of especially high finish, such as the 
smooth black or colored glazes, are prevented from 
scratching in the following manner: the inside of the 
case is recessed by nailing a strip of wood to each end, 
laying the ends of the poles upon it and then nailing an- 
other strip of wood just above the ends of the poles. If 
the size of the order is such that there must be more than 
one layer of rolls in the case, then another recess is built 
a few inches above the first. To prevent rolls in the same 
layer from pressing too closely upon one another, each 
pole has its own individual recess, the strips of wood 
being hollowed out in opposite semi-circular grooves 
forming a separate circular groove for the 'end of each 
pole. ,, 

Bicycles.— According to a prominent international 




Courtesy of Miller Rubber Co. 
Packing of Inner Tubes. 

To economize on, space, boxes containing inner tubes are placed in centre of 
tires. 




Courtesy of Robt. H. Ingersoll £ Bro. 
Packing of Watches. 

Each watch carefully wrapped is placed in box; individual boxes are placed in 
cartons of twelve each. Note that at least one inch is left on all sides of ca$e 
for paper packing. 

673 




Courtesy of Pacific Sanitary Mfg. Co. 
Crating of Bath Tubs. 
As many as six roll rim bath tubs can be nested in one crate. 







Courtesy of Thomas Maddock's Sons Co. 
Sanitary Ware Packed for Shipment. 
Carefully crated in open slat crate, slats are not more than 1%" or 2" apart. 



674 



PACKING SUNDRY COMMODITIES 675 

shipper, " there are two methods of exporting bicycles. 
Some distributors strip the frames entirely, shipping the 
bicycle frames in crates and all equipment in cases. We 
do not advocate that plan ourselves, believing that it costs 
more for ocean space when the wheels of the bicycles are 
boxed together with the accessories. 

"We have found almost universal satisfaction in ship- 
ping our bicycles in crates, one machine to a crate and 
then we fasten four crates together, putting extra straps 
of tough wood around the four crates, supported with 
steel strapping. We strip the bicycles before crating 
them in the following way: The handle bars, pedals, 
saddles and stems are removed. These are packed and 
shipped as accessories in a separate box. The bicycle 
k stands in the crate upon the rubber tires which are in- 
flated. The enamel frames are carefully wrapped accord- 
ing to the spiral method with tough paper. This paper 
must not be too stiff but must conform closely to the part 
wrapped. All bright parts of the bicycle should be 
heavily vaselined to prevent rusting or corrosion by sea 
fog and moisture. 

"Bicycles shipped in that way take up the minimum 
space. They are easily handled, as four machines crated 
together will not make a package of a total gross weight 
of over 300 pounds. The crates are so made that the 
wood strips of which they are composed afford adequate 
protection to the machines or contents. 

"In some instances, where we know the machines are 
going a long distance, for instance, to India and then up 
country, we have removed the rubber tires from the 
bicycles and shipped them in separate case. We do not 
regard this as a necessity, ordinarily, unless there may 
be a possibility of a long exposure of the rubber to arti- 
ficial heat in the steamer or a trip overland, as standing in 
the sun will affect the rubber. ' ' 

Watches.— Among the products of the American fac- 
tory that have won an enviable place for themselves in 
the trade of the world the story of the watch offers a 
great deal that is significant and informative. The mer- 



676 EXPORT PACKING 

chandising methods of the American "watch manufacturer 
are not alone novel and aggressive but they are based on 
quality goods and the argument is a quality argument. 

The export development has brought with it close 
attention to the requirements of a good export package, 
and the success attained proves that the problem has 
been practically solved. The author can remember being 
shown, several years ago in Europe, an export package 
of American watches, and the French jeweler who dis- 
played them stated that it was the most satisfactory 
export packing method with which he was acquainted. 

Since this time great improvement has been made, to 
such an extent that last year one American watch com- 
pany shipped 9,000 packages of various types and styles 
abroad and the complaints for "ill packing could easily 
be counted on one hand and our claim losses for theft, 
etc., as far as the writer can understand, were less than 
five." 

In connection with shipments of watches reference 
should be made to the special chapter on parcel post 
shipments as well as observations elsewhere in this vol- 
ume relating to the protection of all shipments against 
pilfering. 

With reference to export packing of watches a well- 
known house sends us photographs (see page 673) and 
states: "Our watches are placed first in individual 
boxes, either so wrapped with tissue paper that there 
is no play in the box or lying in a nest in the box which 
prevents the watch banging against the side of the box. 
The individual boxes are then placed in cartons holding 
twelve each and packing is placed between the sides of 
the individual boxes and the side of the carton which 
cuts down the play to a minimum. 

1 ' If the shipment is to go by freight, the watches are 
packed in a heavy wooden case, which is first lined with a 
tar-lined paper bag. At least one inch -space is left at all 
sides of the case for packing. After the case is nailed, 
wire strapping is put around the center and ends. Tin- 
lined cases are furnished at cost, if desired." 



PACKING SUNDRY COMMODITIES 677 

Describing its export packing methods, another com- 
pany doing a very large international business writes 
as follows: "We never use second-hand cases, all 
cases being constructed to fit the merchandise shipped 
rather than trying to make the merchandise fit into what- 
ever cases we happen to have. This, of course, means 
extra expense, but when you figure that a customer 
wishes his merchandise delivered to him in proper con- 
dition and does not look for broken or damaged material, 
the slight extra cost in packing is more than compensated 
for by a satisfied client. 

' ' Our heavier material, such as clocks and automobile 
parts, are packed in %" pine stock cleated at each end 
and set in tin lined, hermetically sealed cases, the outside 
of the case being nailed with from seven to nine nails and 
the case strapped with iron strapping at each end and 
around the middle. These cases are strapped in such a 
way that should they drop on any one corner, as cases are 
apt to do, they will not split open, the nailing and cleating 
being such that all goods are protected." 

Silverware. — In reference to export shipments of sil- 
verware a well-known house writes: "Our cases are 
always of new lumber %" in thickness — average size of 
the case 28" x 13" x 12" and should we use a larger size 
case, it is double cleated at the ends. The contents of the 
case are protected by a covering of heavy waterproof tar 
paper which is sealed tight before the cover of the case 
is put on." 

Further reference to shipments of silverware and 
similarly valuable merchandise are to be noted in connec- 
tion with advice elsewhere given relating to protection 
against pilfering. 

Hats.— A letter received from a large exporter says: 
"All hats, whether for export or domestic shipment, are 
first packed in round paseboard cartons, from one to six 
hats being packed in each. The hats are held in place in 
the cartons by a pasteboard stay placed between each 
hat. Strips of tissue paper are also placed between each 
hat to prevent rubbing. The process of this inner pack- 



678 EXPORT PACKING 

ing is completed by covering the entire top of the 
carton with tissue paper before the lid is put on. 

"Export shipments by freight. The cartons are 
packed in cases made of new, sound lumber of a thickness 
of %", strengthened by a batten 3" wide and y 8 " thick, 
around the entire ends of the case. The case is lined with 
waterproof paper and is further protected with Glardon 
clips and angle irons. The angle irons are placed around 
both ends of the case at a distance of about 6" apart. 
The case is completed by placing an iron strapping 1" 
wide securely around both ends. 

* ' This is our usual method of packing our export ship- 
ments for freight, but on shipments to the Argentine 
Republic and to- the West Coast of South America, and 
South Africa, in addition to the above, the case is lined 
with zinc, the top and bottom being soldered so that it is 
absolutely waterproof. Apart from the question of ex- 
pense, this we consider the best method of packing. 

"In shipping to countries where the duty is. levied on 
the gross weight, the question becomes one of lightness 
consistent with safety. For these countries we use a 
veneer case protected by battens and iron straps as de- 
scribed above. 

"We also ship in zinc or tin cases crated with wooden 
slats placed about 6" apart all around the case." 

Moving Picture Films.— Except to Brazil and Eng- 
land, moving picture films are packed as follows : Each 
reel is wrapped with tissue paper and placed in a tin 
container about 10% " in diameter. The cover of the con- 
tainer fits down tight, but it is not sealed or fastened in 
any way. On each container is pasted a label giving the 
title of the film and the number of the reel. 

The containers are packed one on top of the other in 
a square case of North Carolina pine %" lumber. From 
five to thirty-two containers are packed in a case, accord- 
ing to the size of the order. x The case is lined with tin 
and after the containers have been packed, a piece of tin 
is soldered on to the top edges of the lining for a cover. 
The lining consists simply of square pieces of tin, one to 



PACKING SUNDRY COMMODITIES 679 

every side of the case and overlapping at the corners and 
sealed, the top edges being bent inward about an inch to 
support the tin cover. The cover of the wooden case is 
then nailed on, two opposite sides of the case are cleated, 
and two wire straps are nailed around the case near the 
edges. 

Almost the same method is used in packing for Brazil, 
but no tin containers are used, since there is a duty of 
$10 each on such cans in that country. Each reel is first 
wrapped in tissue paper, then in waxed paper, and the 
reels are then laid on top of each other in the tin-lined 
case. 

Films going to England are packed in galvanized iron 
cases with wooden lining about one-quarter of an inch 
thick. Only seven reels are packed in a case. The cover 
is hinged and has two padlock fastenings and on top of 
the case is a handle for convenience in lifting. The 
wooden lining of this case is fastened into the tin with 
bolts. 

Picture Moldings.— A large exporter of picture mold- 
ings writes : "In taking up this matter in detail, we find 
that due to the different methods and customs prevailing, 
especially in some of the South American countries, we 
have to adopt three methods of packing: First are the 
standard sized wooden cases which are used generally; 
second are our special wooden cases of short lengths or 
light weight for shipment to South American countries 
where transportation is usually by pack animals; third, 
packing in bundles for shipment to countries where duties 
are paid by the gross weight. 

" Standard method of packing. As our moldings all 
run in three standard lengths, namely, 8', 10' and 12', we 
have standardized the largest percentage of our packing 
in three cases of the following dimensions : Box No. 1 — 
outside measurement is 8' 6" x 26" x 14" ; inside 8' 2" x 24" 
x 12". Box No. 2— outside 10' 6" x 26" x 14"; inside 
10' 2" x 24" x 12". Box No. 3— outside 12' 6" x 26" x 
14" ; inside 12' 2" x 24" x 12". The sizes of the above 
boxes are practically the same on all shipments, due to 



680 EXPORT PACKING 

the fact that the majority of the molding is sold in large 
quantities and each pattern or similar patterns can be 
packed together. 

"Both ends of these boxes are made of two thick- 
nesses of inch lumber; the sides are of one-inch lumber 
and the top and bottom are cleated with strips 4" x 1", the 
open places between cleats being boarded up solid with 
one-half inch birch lumber, which we find the most satis- 
factory for making cases, as it is very tough. 

"The boxes are lined with heavy waterproof paper, 
and the molding is packed solid so that there will be no 
play or shifting inside of the boxes. After the box is 
packed it is then strapped with steel fasteners. 

"When large moldings are packed in cases, they are 
always tied two together face to face with excelsior 
cushions in between, as large moldings are not so easy to 
pack solidly and have a greater tendency to shift in the 
box, thus rubbing the faces and spoiling the molding. 

"We can give no standard weight of these cases, but 
they will average from 550 to 750 pounds each, depending 
upon the kind of molding packed in same. 

"Second special method of packing wooden cases. 
These cases are made the same as the above with the 
exception that they are limited to 5-foot lengths and to 
160 pounds gross weight. These are for shipment prin- 
cipally to Colombia, South America, where it is necessary 
to transport cases overland via pack mules.' ' 

To some countries, especially countries in Latin 
America, and above all to Venezuela, where duties are 
paid on the basis of gross weights, picture moldings are 
sometimes shipped in bundles, to which reference is made 
in the special chapter devoted to shipments of that de- 
scription. 



CHAPTER XXVI 
FOREIGN PARCEL POST SHIPMENTS 

WITH the extension of our parcel post conventions 
throughout the world, the United States will 
doubtless soon be able to place at the disposal of 
shippers the same facilities which the United Kingdom 
has for many years been able to offer to exporters in that 
country. Shipments by parcel post are in many cases to 
be preferred to other forms of shipment, because of the 
lack of formalities and the ease of passing such packages 
through custom houses and comparative quickness of 
transmission. Again, there are a great many commodi- 
ties usually sent out in small packages for which the par- 
cel post is an ideal, in fact, an essential way of shipping. 

In 1913 parcel post packages could be sent from the 
United States to only forty-four countries of the world, 
and the limit of weight was eleven pounds. Today the 
American parcel post service extends to more than one 
hundred and eighty nations and colonies, and to fifteen 
of these countries one may send parcels up to twenty-two 
pounds in weight and to one, Panama, up to fifty pounds. 
In 1912 there were dispatched from the United States 
2,270,215 pounds of export parcel post matter. In 1913 
there was an increase of 600,000 pounds and in 1914 about 
500,000 pounds. 

Immediately after the signing of the armistice, our 
Post Office Department concluded parcel post arrange- 
ments with eighteen foreign countries with which there 
had been no conventions up to that time, and some of the 
very important markets of the east, south and west were 
opened up to American foreign parcel post business. In 
rapid succession came conventions with Spain and her 
colonies and with Great Britain and France whereby the 
American parcel post system was extended to every coun- 

681 



682 EXPORT PACKING 

try in the world which was reached by the parcel post 
arrangements of these two nations. In a very short time 
our service was extended to about one hundred and eighty 
countries as against forty-four in 1912. The volume of 
matter sent by parcel post shows a corresponding in- 
crease, namely, from 2,270,215 pounds sent in 1912 to 
17,102,131 pounds in 1919. In the first quarter of the 
fiscal year of 1920 the post office sent out more than 
6,000,000 pounds by parcel post or more than was dis- 
patched in the combined years'of 1912 and 1913. Indeed, 
so great has the volume of foreign parcel post business 
become that our Post Office Department will probably ask 
for a deficiency appropriation of at least $1,000,000 to 
pay for the increased cost of steamship transportation. 

Since the whole question of packing for foreign parcel 
post shipments primarily depends upon the parcel post 
arrangements of the country of destination and the con- 
vention of our own country with that other country, the 
very first step in filling an order is to investigate these 
regulations. Shippers should always have close at hand 
for ready reference the latest edition of the United States 
Official Postal Guide. This is published in the form of a 
cloth bound volume in July of each year, and there are 
monthly supplements which keep detailed information 
and the official instructions up to date. The annual sub- 
scription to the Guide with supplements is $2.25 and the 
source of supply the Post Office Department, Washington, 
D. C. Shippers who are not in possession of the Official 
Postal Guide will always find it and its monthly supple- 
ments available for consultation at their local post offices. 

The regulations affecting the dispatch of parcel post 
packages to foreign countries are numerous and vary 
with the different countries of destination. Sometimes 
regulations define the merchandise which is prohibited 
for transmission to certain countries. Occasionally there 
are instructions as to certain special packing which is 
obligatory as regards some commodities. Special sizes 
and weights of parcels which are allowed and the rates of 
postage which apply to shipments to all countries are 



FOREIGN PARCEL POST SHIPMENTS 683 

enumerated. In the case of a few countries parcel post 
packages may only be addressed to certain specified cities 
or post offices. Regulations also refer to the necessary 
customs declarations and in a few instances to the con- 
sular invoices which must accompany packages shipped 
by parcel post. All of these instructions will be found 
clearly set forth in the Official Postal Guide under the 
heading of the countries of destination, and should be 
carefully investigated in the case of each parcel post 
shipment. 

When to Use Foreign Parcel Post.— In general, small 
quantities of merchandise may preferably be forwarded 
by foreign parcel post whenever individual units of ship- 
ment come within the weight limits of 11 pounds, or 22 
pounds, or whatever the official limit may be for the 
country of destination. Individual units, or any combina- 
tion of them, can be packed in a parcel, the weight of 
which must not exceed the official limit. Any number of 
such parcels can be dispatched to cover the quantity to 
be forwarded. Up to a certain point it will usually be 
found cheaper to forward limited quantities of merchan- 
dise by parcel post than by freight or by the so-called 
" foreign expresses,' ' and as has above been hinted, par- 
cel post shipments arrive as promptly, to say the least, as 
do freight shipments. When, however, it is a question of 
shipping a considerable quantity of merchandise, the 
point will ultimately be reached when freight rates or 
"foreign express" rates for the quantity of merchandise 
in question will compare more than favorably with the 
parcel post charges. In this connection it is to be borne 
in mind, that in some countries there is a delivery charge 
imposed on the consignee applying to each parcel post 
package in addition to the United States postage which 
has been prepaid, and in some countries there is a surtax 
which the consignee must pay, in the case of Australia 
amounting to 12 cents per parcel, over and above other 
charges. Considerations such as these may affect the 
shipper's choice of the means by which he will forward 
his goods to the best satisfaction of his customer. 



684 EXPORT PACKING 

It may also here be pointed out that samples of no 
commercial value ought not to be dispatched by parcel 
post unless such samples have been specifically requested 
by foreign merchants. When a parcel post package ar- 
rives in a foreign post office, if it contains dutiable goods, 
the consignee is called upon to pay the usual import 
duties. He will not be pleased to do so if a sample has 
been sent without his knowledge or permission, at least, 
unless the sample is something which he wants, and may 
very likely refuse to take delivery of the parcel. Shippers 
may be reminded that there is available the " sample 
post" which is preferable for use when samples have no 
commercial value and weigh less than 12 ounces. Simi- 
larly, advertising matter and catalogues should be sent 
preferably as "printed matter" rather than by parcel 
post in order to avoid excessive customs duty charges. 
On the other hand, it is sometimes prohibited to ship val- 
uable articles in the regular mails. Fountain pens 
shipped to Japan are subject to duty in that country and 
will not be accepted in the regular mails from the United 
States but must be forwarded by parcel post. 

General Regulations.— While quite impossible in this 
chapter to reprint the elaborate and detailed regulations 
applying to foreign parcel post shipments, it may be de- 
sirable at this point to resume briefly a few of the general 
instructions issued by the Post Office Department. 

A parcel may not be posted in a letter box or package 
box but must be taken into the post office or post office 
station and presented to the officer or clerk in charge. 

The postage in all cases must be prepaid by means of 
postage stamps, which must be affixed to the parcel. The 
general postage rate is 12 cents for each pound or frac- 
tion of a pound, consequently if a parcel weighs even 
a quarter of an ounce over a pound, another full rate 
must be prepaid or the parcel will not be dispatched from 
the United States. The general rate of 12 cents per 
pound, or fraction thereof, is broken in exceptional cases*, 
applying to parcel post packages intended for a good 
many countries which are reached from the United States 



FOREIGN PARCEL POST SHIPMENTS 685 

by dispatch from here through the intermediary of an- 
other country (for example, Great Britain or France), 
and charges for the transportation over the territory of 
the other country are therefore imposed by it. Such 
charges, in addition to the postage, must be paid by the 
senders by means of United States postage stamps affixed 
to each parcel post package concerned at the time of 
mailing. 

Customs duties on parcels which may be imposed by 
foreign countries of destination cannot be prepaid by the 
senders in this country. They are collected from the 
addressees when the parcels are delivered. An exception 
to this rule is found in the provisions for the prepayment 
of customs duties on catalogues and advertising circu- 
lars shipped to Australia and the Union of South Africa. 

Printed catalogues or other advertising circulars are 
subject to customs duties in Australia and the Union of 
South Africa, even when forwarded in single copies ad- 
dressed to individuals, when the weights of such packages 
exceed certain specified limits. This is a very important 
matter to manufacturers who wish to get their catalogues 
into the hands of possible buyers of their goods in these 
countries, without imposing a penalty on their prospec- 
tive customers for the privilege of receiving the manufac- 
turer's advertising matter. There are also duties on 
catalogues and printed advertising material in Canada, 
New Zealand and other countries of the world, but such 
duties apply to bulk shipments, and such shipments are 
usually to be regarded as similar to shipments of general 
merchandise and the same necessity does not exist of 
landing in the hands of the addressees without charge. 
The duty on catalogues sent to Australia and South 
Africa may, unlike any other kind of customs duties, be 
prepaid by the sender in this country in the following 
ways : In the case of Australia, customs duty stamps may 
be purchased from the Australian Customs Representa- 
tive in New York City, from whom also full information, 
the details of the duty required by different weights of 
packages, etc., may be obtained. In the case of the Union 



686 EXPORT PACKING 

of South Africa, the shipper in this country may obtain 
customs duty stamps of that Union from the office of the 
High Commissioner of the Union of South Africa, 72 
Victoria Street, London, S. W. Details as to the amounts 
of duty to be thus prepaid will be found in the United 
States Official Postal Guide. 

Any article absolutely prohibited admission to the 
regular mails for any country is also inadmissable to par- 
cel post mails for that country, but no article is excluded 
from parcel post mails solely because it is dutiable in the 
country of destination. 

A letter of communication of the nature of personal 
correspondence must not accompany, be written on or 
enclosed with any parcel, but an open bill or invoice may 
be enclosed in a parcel. 

"No parcel may contain packages addressed to per- 
sons other than the person named in the outside address 
of the parcel itself. ' ' This official regulation, it should be 
noted, applies to l addressed ' packages within a parcel. 
There is nothing in the regulations to prohibit the send- 
ing of several packages separately wrapped and serially 
numbered, within a general parcel even when these sep- 
arate packages may be intended for different consignees, 
in regard to which a separate letter to the original con- 
signee of the whole parcel may have given instructions 
regarding separate deliveries. 

Parcel post packages are only accepted for transmis- 
sion to certain specified cities or post offices in the case of 
a few countries of the world. In general, the parcel post 
system reaches all post offices in countries to which the 
parcel post extends. However, notably in China and 
Brazil (see official regulations), there are comparatively 
few points to which the parcel post is delivered. If it is 
desired to ship parcels intended for other destinations in 
these countries than the cities officially listed, then ar- 
rangements must be made with the consignees in those 
countries to take delivery of such parcels at the officially 
designated post offices. The United States Post Office De- 
partment will not accept parcels for destinations in 






FOREIGN PARCEL POST SHIPMENTS 687 

Brazil outside of seven specified post offices in that coun- 
try, unless the address side of each such parcel is marked 
"Sender's Risk" or "Delivery Arranged." 

Registration of Parcels.— Parcel post packages for 
most countries of the world may be registered (for excep- 
tions see Official Postal Guide), and whenever possible 
they should be registered. Shippers of parcels to most 
countries for which registration is possible may, if they 
so request it, receive a return receipt from the addressee 
of the parcel without special charge therefor. Further- 
more, and a point which is not always understood by all 
shippers, even when parcels are not registered, the sender 



PARCEL POSIT BETWEEN UNITED STATES AHO UOio"Olfo i 3 

Form of CUSTOMS DECLARATION. 



— 

1t> t# filled «»Mfte 

Office. » 



PssllSte.. 



DESCRIPTION OF 

PARCKL 

t8wt<- whether Box 

EttrfcM, Bag. mK.) 




JB^H^rounUl-nT* 



er\s 



E5D 



00 



* 15C. 00 



Total 

Cratota* UtefRasPn^ta 

Charges 



imm. 



(DATE STAMP) 
<&aitmsr Office) 



Signature and Address of Henaen 



isa ° n 1 5mik,Exo.w.T ? ..g..3b.r,. e . 5 ..a 
)..3i^wa.y.,.tie.yv;.yftri.C.wt' 



•To be filled out at the RECEIVING EXCHANGE Gift: 
(Form 2966: 




Customs Declaration, rorm 2966, which must he attached to aU parcel 
post packages for foreign countries. 

may obtain a receipt from the United States post office 
for the packages which he delivers to the post office for 
transmission by foreign parcel post mails. The office of 
mailing will, if requested, till out and date stamp a "cer- 
tificate of mailing' ' without charge, and it will supply 
duplicate and triplicate of the same certificate at a charge 
of one cent each. These proofs of actual mailing of par- 
cels may be extremely important and even valuable. 

Insurance of Parcel Post.— The official regulations de- 
clare that "parcel post packages to foreign countries (in- 
cluding Mexico and Panama) cannot be insured.' ' It 
should be understood, however, that this official regula- 



688 EXPORT PACKING 

tion applies only to government insurances. All parcel 
post packages may be insured through certain marine in- 
surance companies, some of which specialize in this form 
of insurance. The matter of insurance should be care- 
fully considered in packing, for the average insurance 
policy contains a clause limiting the company's responsi- 
bility per package, that limit usually being lower for 
countries to which packages cannot be registered. This 
limit ought never to be exceeded by the value of the goods 
because in case of loss the insurance company's respon- 
sibility is limited to the amount of the policy. On this 




THE ADDRESS OF THE PARCEL SHOULD BE WBITTEW ON THIS SIDE 
AS WELL AS ©If ."ftUL'Pim&WL ITSELF. 



IpwrUcU - g.OCL_- , , jfcjjmkia.. 



Reverse side of Form 2966. 

account, it is often advisable to pack a consignment in 
several separate packages, even though otherwise one 
package alone might have been sufficient. 

Customs Declarations.— A "Customs Declaration, ,, 
Form 2966 (which will be furnished on application at the 
post office or. station), must be properly and fully filled 
out, stating the actual contents, value, etc., of the parcel. 
General terms such as "merchandise" or "samples" will 
not answer; contents must be accurately described in the 
English language, although an interlineation in another 
language, if desired, may be furnished. The "Customs 
Declaration" must be firmly attached to the cover of the 
parcel, but not pasted or affixed so that it will seal the 



FOREIGN PARCEL POST SHIPMENTS 689 

package and prevent examination of the contents without 
damaging the cover. In addition to being tied by means 
of a cord passing through the eyelet, the tag should be 
bound flat to the parcel (with the front or u declaration " 
side facing out) so that the tag cannot be used as a handle 
to lift the package while in transit. 

A special " Customs Declaration,' ' Form 2967, must 
be attached to parcels for France and certain French 
colonies, in addition to the regular Form 2966. In the 
case of some countries two or more copies of the Cus- 
toms Declaration, either Form 2966 or Form 2967, are 
required. 



^6™ 8I0ES OP THIS FORM MUST BE FiUUfil 

Declaration for the French Customs, 



TO BE FILLED OUT AT THE 
DittXMcfalng fxrhmte office. 



o 



(TWO DECLARATIONS MUST ACCOMPANY EACH PACKAGE.) 

nm or mouse km satire of m ammm. 



CONTAINING 


CONTENTS 


Mm if 


ftwmssM 


Nature of Merchandise. 


E«tiii3 «{ srtm «f «itt»»it». ■- 


tKtopt 


ibs. 


Vattiras, sw-i Y«li». in. 




\oh( 


o&. Leather Q>hoe<=> 






^Box 




m 


Mrikti a* 


KKS; l«« 

Mvwfni <t 


<Sft» i» S» (teS* fswife i to ,« 
But ssJbks sffscs tt lartirtsiy ».• 


tta rejst to 


* as-» kj «tti»> «cjf 




-Tor Cnri5iLmd[i!cTi. 



te:sJw&.- 



Special Customs Declaration, Form 2967, which must be attached to all 
parcel post packages for France, in addition to Form 2966. 

Customs Declarations take the place of certified in- 
voices in most parcel post transactions, and they must 
therefore accurately describe the contents of parcels, and 
state their exact and correct value. Much complaint has 
been received from foreign post offices as to the incorrect 
declaration of the contents of parcels. The values must 
be the current values of the finished articles. Over-valua- 
tion involves expense and inconvenience to the addressee ; 
under-valuation leads to the confiscation of the parcel and 
its contents. Each parcel must have its own Customs 
Declaration attached, describing the contents and giving 
the value for that individual package, and no package will 



690 EXPORT PACKING 

be accepted by the post office without the Customs Dec- 
laration, properly filled out, being attached. 

If possible, information should be obtained from the 
customer as to the manner of declaring the shipment 
according to the laws of the country of the customer ; the 
classifications and rate of duty on the merchandise en- 
closed, with the specified paragraph under which it is 
enumerated in the tariff laws, whenever, as is the case in 
many Latin American republics, penalties are imposed 
for wrongful declarations. The Customs Declaration tag 
(reproduced in this chapter) is the only formality which 
must be complied with in the case of parcel post ship- 
ments. No filing of shipper's declaration at custom house 




(BOTH SIDES OF THIS FORM MUST BE FILLED IN.) 

Parcel-Post Between The United States and France. 

DECLARATION FOR THE FRENCH CUSTOMS. 

(TWO DECLARATIONS MUST ACCOMPANY EACH PACKAGE.) 

,Tk $er«k, reafag at ..^.Q.Q..,.]5xOaidwaiy.... r .,^e^...^r.k...£Lty,,.,. 

«iedares ifaai he sends te Mr, vTesn .^XLEmSlS ... , 

m iteii as tk otter safe, oripa&g ».„., ,,.l-U/T\V : T.fea....S!t.dtfeS.,..„,. 

suw asks tfeat Jte customs lormafiSes te e«8$eted ai &n stress (a France) of Xfe 



Reverse side of Form 2967. 

or other similar formalities are required, as is necessary 
in shipping goods by freight. 

No erasure or amendment should be made in the en- 
tries relating to the description, number, value, etc., of 
contents of the package. A separate entry should be 
made of each kind of article or goods, describing pre- 
cisely in each instance the quality, quantity by number, 
measurement and net weight (in grams when packages 
are destined for countries using the metric system). 

Addressing* Packages.— Every parcel must be plainly 
addressed in ink, giving the name and full address of the 
person for whom the parcel is intended. It should bear 



FOREIGN PARCEL POST SHIPMENTS 691 

the words " Parcel Post" conspicuously in the upper left- 
hand corner and the name and address of the sender 
in such a position that it will not be mistaken for the 
address of the parcel. The standard specifications of 
the War Department for marking packages are worthy of 
note in this connection. " Marks may be applied in the 
form of printed labels marked with waterproof ink in 
letters not less than one-fourth inch high. At least two 
labels, containing all markings, should be glued to each 
package, one on each end. Such labels to be made of sul- 
phite paper, sulphate kraft paper, or other approved 
paper, and should be applied with hide glue, fish glue, or 
casein glue. After being glued, the addressed label 
should be brushed over with a coating of formaldehyde. ' ' 

The official post office regulations applying to parcel 
post shipments to Russia provide for certain special ad- 
dressing which perhaps may profitably be taken into con- 
sideration in general regarding parcel post shipments. 
"Parcels covered with oil-cloth must be provided with a 
stout linen-backed label securely sewn to the cover by 
stitching along the edges and diagonally across the label, 
on which a clear space not less than 5 inches by 3 inches 
has been left for affixing official labels. The parcels may 
be addressed on the rest of the label. If addressed on 
the cover itself, the address must be painted on the cover, 
preferably with white paint. The name and address of 
the sender must be shown on the cover of every parcel.' ' 

All mail articles addressed in German, Russian, 
Greek, Turkish, Hebrew or Chinese characters, even if 
they bear in English, "Germany," " Russia,' ' "Greece," 
"Turkey" or "China," etc., should have an interlined 
translation of each address in English, or in lieu of these 
two addresses, the names of the post office and country 
of destination in Roman or English characters, print or 
script. 

Packing for Foreign Parcel Post.— There is no little 
complaint of insufficient packing in our own domestic par- 
cel post mails. The necessity for extra strong and thor- 
oughly secure packing for foreign parcel post is doubly 



692 EXPORT PACKING 

to be emphasized. In the past few months repeated com- 
plaints have been received by the United States Post 
Office as to the condition in which onr parcel post pack- 
ages have arrived at foreign destinations. It is alleged 
that at one time 500 damaged packages were received in 
London from this country, damaged in consequence of 
poor wrapping and packing and improper preparation 
for transmission overseas. Similar complaints have been 
received not only from far distant points like China and 
Australia, but from Central America and even from 
Canada. 

In the first place, it should be understood by shippers 
that our parcel post mails are usually sent from this 
country in ordinary mail bags. Some European coun- 
tries ship their parcel post packages in hampers and 
cases. This is sometimes done in the American mails but 
more frequently ordinary mail sacks are employed. A 
hamper or a case protects the packages within from 
rough handling. There is no such protection when mail 
bags are employed, which are thrown about in the way 
to which everybody is accustomed : from the mail wagon 
to the wharf, from the wharf, into the ship, with scores or 
perhaps hundreds of other bags and packages on top, 
lugged and dragged about and finally stored on board 
ship, which, when it arrives at the foreign port, reverses 
the operation and the sacks are thrown helter-skelter 
and violently from the ship on board a lighter or on to a 
wharf, with the natural and inevitable consequence that 
all light parcels included in these bags, whether made of 
wood or pasteboard, are morally certain to be damaged 
if not completely smashed and their contents possibly 
lost or destroyed. 

The natural disposition of a shipper is to pack a 
parcel post package as light as possible in order to save 
postage, but only soft articles which will stand crushing 
should ever be shipped in any containers not strong 
enough to stand up under the rough usage just above de- 
scribed, no matter if a few cents' extra postage is re- 
quired to carry the heavier, stronger container. It must 






FOREIGN PARCEL POST SHIPMENTS 693 

be remembered that the friction resulting to articles con- 
tained in sacks stored in the mail rooms of ocean steam- 
ers is considerable, and even wrapping papers for news- 
papers and magazines should be much stronger than is 
normally required in our domestic mails. 

Another preliminary consideration in connection with 
the packing for foreign parcel post mails is the destina- 
tion of the package and the treatment which it is likely 
to undergo in country or destination. In some foreign 
countries, in China, perhaps, parcel post packages are 
carried for as much as fourteen days on camelback. In 
Central American countries mails for interior points 
are sent on muleback, frequently involving trips of from 
three to six days, fording rivers and exposed to tropical 
rain storms. Sacks have to be roped tightly to the ani- 
mals which transport the mails to prevent their slipping, 
and the ropes are quite sure to crush any light packages 
contained within the sacks, while the necessity for water- 
proof protection is even more emphatic in the case of 
parcel post shipments than it is in the case of regular 
freight shipments. 

Packages Presented Open for Inspection.— The post 
office regulations provide that every package must be 
securely and safely packed so that it can be safely trans- 
mitted in ordinary mail sacks, and it must be so wrapped 
or enclosed that its contents can be easily examined by 
postmasters and customs officials. Boxes with lids 
screwed or nailed on may be used and bags closed by 
means of sewing, providing they are presented at the 
post office open for inspection and are then closed by the 
sender. There are, however, three or four countries for 
which parcels are accepted by the post office for mailing 
even though they are sealed and closed against inspec- 
tion, providing they conform to other prescribed condi- 
tions. This means that as a rule the outside box or other 
container must be easily opened for inspection, and 
that small boxes or packages enclosed in the outside con- 
tainer must also be easily opened or their contents other- 
wise readily inspected. 



694 EXPORT PACKING 

For example, a prominent manufacturer of fountain 
pens doing a very large parcel post business has an inter- 
esting method for packing his pens in cardboard cartons 
containing from six upwards. This manufacturer uses 
a so-called "outlook box" in three sizes, containing six, 
nine and twelve pens. The box has two openings in the 
cover through which the quantity of pens and clip caps 
may be checked without the unsealing of the carton. The 
upper opening shows the clip, the lower shows the holder. 
To prevent pilfering and unjust claims, each carton is 
sealed with a band bearing a list of its contents. The 
individual pen boxes in which fountain pens are usually 
sold are placed empty in layers on the top and bottom of 
the "outlook box," thus forming a cushion which is an 
added protection in shipping. 

This feature is covered by the official regulations 
which read: "The presence in an unsealed parcel of 
sealed receptacles containing mailable articles which 
cannot be safely transmitted in the unsealed receptacles 
will not render the parcel unmailable, provided the con- 
tents of the sealed receptacles are plainly visible or are 
unmistakably indicated by the method of packing or by a 
precise statement on the covers. But such sealed re- 
ceptacles will not be admitted to the parcel post unless 
enclosed in an outside cover open to inspection." 

Interior Preparation and Protection.— The first essen- 
tial in preparing merchandise for shipment by parcel 
post is that the contents of the whole parcel, whether in 
one or several packages, be individually wrapped in good 
waterproof paper and adequately tied with twine fast- 
ened by loop knots, permitting ease in opening if re- 
quired. The interior packages ought not to be sealed, at 
least not until after presentation at the post office. Soft 
articles of a yielding nature, such as hosiery or clothing, 
should be folded to make a uniform package, tied with 
twine after being compressed and then wrapped with a 
waterproof paper ? which is similarly tied, the twine run- 
ning at least once around the smallest dimensions of the 
parcel and at least twice around the larger dimensions. 



FOREIGN PARCEL POST SHIPMENTS 695 

The second important thing in the preparation of the 
interior contents of a parcel is that the contents fit very 
snugly and tightly. The package should be rigid. Any 
play that is permitted increases the danger of damage 
to the goods and of breakage of the exterior container. 
The contents themselves should be made rigid and the 
outside container should fit exactly, or, if any stuffing is 
required it should make the contents tight and absolutely 
prevent any shaking about in the container, while at 
the same time it must be light in weight, whether it is 
excelsior, paper wadding, or what-not, although it is 
clear that the effort to save twelve cents in postage by 
eliminating weight in package may sometimes cause a 
loss from damage of many times that amount. 

The preparation of merchandise for parcel post ship- 
ment sometimes involves careful consideration of import 
duties in the country of destination, as has been sug- 
gested in regard to regular freight shipments. Thus, in 
Latin American countries where goods pay duty on legal 
weight, the immediate packing around the articles them- 
selves may frequently be omitted with advantage. Thus, 
prominent exporters of jewelry call attention to the fact 
that in a number of Latin American countries jewelry 
should not be shipped attached to cards or packed in dis- 
play trays or boxes. Small tags may be used in place of 
cards and the jewelry may be wrapped in tissue paper 
for the immediate wrapper. The cards commonly em- 
ployed in the United States are rarely used by retailers 
in the countries in question. If boxes or trays are 
shipped they may either be forwarded separately or, in 
some cases, the net weights of the jewelry itself and of 
the boxes or trays may be declared separately. 

The following statement from the Official Postal 
Guide gives definite instructions as to certain forms of 
interior packages: "It is permissible to accept liquids, 
dyes, greasy substances, and similar articles inclosed in 
lead-sealed metal containers for those foreign countries 
admitting such articles in the parcel post mails, provided 
the containers are labeled in printing so as to show the 



f 



696 EXPORT PACKING 

nature of the contents, the quantity, and the name of the 
manufacturer or dealer, and, in addition, such containers 
are inclosed in substantial outside covers open to 
inspection. 

"With respect to compression or friction top metal 
cans or containers, it should be suggested to manufac- 
turers and dealers that these compression and friction 
top metal cans or containers be lead sealed or soldered 
in at least four places, so as to render them acceptable 
for mailing, as indicated in the paragraph above, and 
thus insure the lids from being forced out of place in 
the course of transit. It is preferred, however, that 
inside containers be used that will permit closing by 
screw top covers with sufficient screw threads to re- 
quire at least one and one-half complete turns before 
the covers will come off, such covers, when employed, 
to be provided with washers, so as to prevent possible 
leakage of the contents." 

The Outside Container.— Official instructions to post- 
masters provide that "parcels packed in thin, flimsy 
paper or packed in thin pasteboard boxes will not be 
accepted. ' ' Further than this there are no official regula- 
tions of a general nature but numerous hints of great 
importance will be found in the "Observations" which 
appear in the Official Postal Guide under the different 
foreign countries to which parcel post mails are dis- 
patched. For example, under the heading of Egypt, we 
find the following : 

"Parcels for the Sudan must be packed in wood, tin, 
canvas, linen, or similar material, and not merely in 
brown paper or cardboard, and be securely sealed with 
wax or lead, preferably lead. Parcels not packed in 
wooden or metal boxes must be covered with canvas, 
linen, or similar material sewn up at the flaps and folds 
and secured with string sealed at the knots and ends. 
Wooden boxes must be of stout material, well screwed or 
nailed together at the sides, top, and bottom. Light and 
bulky articles must be packed in strong wooden cases. 
Parcels containing bacon, ham, honey, cheese, cakes, pud- 



FOREIGN PARCEL POST SHIPMENTS 697 

dings, fish, olives, butter, or other substances likely to 
cause damage by exuding, must, in addition to the outer 
packing described above, be inclosed in hermetically 
sealed tins or surrounded with some absorbent material, 
such as sawdust. ' ' 

Under instructions applying to parcel post for Russia, 
the Guide observes: " Parcels must be packed in wood, 
tin, canvas, linen, or similar material, and not merely in 
paper or cardboard, and be securely sealed with wax or 
lead, preferably lead. Parcels not packed in wooden or 
metal boxes must be covered with canvas, linen or oil- 
cloth (not linen faced paper) sewn up at the flaps and 
folds, and secured with string sealed at the ends and 
knots. Wooden boxes must be of stout material, well 
screwed or nailed together at the sides, top and bottom. 
To avoid delay at the Russian frontier, senders are 
strongly advised to tie all parcels round with cord, seal- 
ing the loose ends with lead seals.' ' In regard to these 
special regulations it should be noted that the sealing, 
sewing, nailing, etc, which are advised, must be done 
after presentation of the parcel at the mailing office. 

The Canadian Post Office Department not long ago 
issued the following : ' i Ordinary brown paper wrapping 
and ordinary cardboard boxes, such as shoe boxes, are 
not sufficient, nor should thin wooden boxes be used. 
Strong paper cardboard or strawboard boxes are recom- 
mended, especially those of corrugated cardboard with 
laps which completely close the sides also. Strong 
wooden boxes, tin boxes such as are used for packing bis- 
cuits, and several folds of stout wrapping paper may suf- 
fice, according to the size and nature of the goods.' ' 

In a recent statement to the present writer, the Second 
Assistant Postmaster General strongly deprecated the 
use of thin wooden boxes in parcel post shipments. ' ' The 
acceptance should be discouraged, of pasteboard boxes, 
parcels wrapped in paper of less than a reasonable de- 
gree of thickness or of reasonable tensile strength, pack- 
ages tied with weak twine, and unstrapped wooden boxes 
made of material less than one-half inch thick. * ' 



698 EXPORT PACKING 

A well-known New York export house writes in regard 
to parcel post shipments that there should always be a 
final outer covering of cloth material of some sort which 
will show quickly if any pilfering has taken place. This 
exporter strongly favors oilcloth covers. 

Wood and Tin Containers.— In many instances, the 
use of wooden or tin outside containers is strongly to 
be recommended, yet, whenever possible, precautions 
should be taken that any such containers should be so 
prepared that the corners and edges will not be likely 
to damage other parcels with which they may come in 
contact in the mail bags, remembering the constant and 
long continued friction to which the contents of these 
bags are subjected. Wooden boxes should be stout and 
strong, yet of the minimum weight possible according to 
the contents. Light woods, such as bass or white pine, 
are recommended. The American Red Cross in its 
instructions for the preparation of overseas parcels ad- 
vises that ends of wooden boxes be not less than % inch 
thick, and sides and bottom 5/16 inch thickness as a 
minimum, all wood to be dressed on both sides. Cement 
coated nails should be used when boxes are closed by 
nails, the three-penny size being advised. 

Special regulations apply to shipment of articles made 
of celluloid when they are dispatched to a number of 
foreign countries and probably should apply in the case 
of all shipments of such articles. In general, the regula- 
tions provide that celluloid or articles made of celluloid, 
must be packed in strong wooden boxes and the parcel 
itself must be labeled celluloid in large plain black letters. 

Fibre and Straw Board Containers.— The very defi- 
nite and precise instructions issued by the Interstate 
Commerce Commission for the construction of fibre and 
strawboard containers, may very well be taken as a 
model for such containers, when applied to shipments of 
parcel post packages overseas, even though the original 
instructions were designed to apply solely to domestic 
shipments of inflammable liquids. These specifications 
are, it is true, very exacting, but, as has been repeatedly 






FOREIGN PARCEL POST SHIPMENTS 699 

emphasized in these pages, too much thought and care 
cannot be devoted to the problem of delivering merchan- 
dise in safe and sound condition into the hands of cur 
customers in other countries. Here follow extracts from 
the regulations referred to which may be found in full, 
with further details, in the official publications of the 
Interstate Commerce Commission. 

"The inside containers must be securely closed in 
such manner as to prevent leakage of the liquid during 
transit. 

"Each inside container must be wrapped separately 
in single-faced corrugated strawboard wrappers. If the 
inside containers exceed % pint capacity each, they must 
also be separated by double-faced corrugated strawboard 
partitions or packed separately in double-faced corru- 
gated strawboard cartons or boxes; provided, that con- 
tainers of not more than one ounce capacity each, packed 
in wooden boxes or double-faced strawboard cartons and 
cushioned when necessary to prevent breakage, may be 
packed in outside cases without the wrappers or parti- 
tions prescribed above. 

"Fibre board or pulpboard used in making fibre 
board or pulpboard cases must be 3-ply or more, all plies 
firmly glued together, the outer ply waterproofed, and 
no single ply less than 0.02 inch in thickness. Solid fibre 
millboard used in making cases must be composed of not 
less than 50 per cent of sulphite fibre and must be water- 
proofed throughout. 

"When the glued ply fibre board or pulpboard used 
in making cases is not less than 0.10 inch in thickness, 
having a resistance of not less than 275 pounds to the 
square inch, Mullen test, and an inner mantle of glued 
ply fibre board or pulpboard is arranged and constructed 
to closely fit inside the case, this mantle having a resist- 
ance of not less than 175 pounds to the square inch, 
Mullen test, the combined capacity of all containers in 
the case must not exceed 6 quarts. 

4 ' The mantle shall be made in one piece of glued ply 
fibre board or pulpboard or double-faced corrugated 



700 EXPORT PACKING 

strawboard, and shall be accurately fitted to the inside 
of the container with a close-fitting edge but arranged 
longitudinally along the center of one of the sides (not 
heads) of the cases. This flush edge butt to be located 
approximately midway between the top and bottom edges 
of said side of case. 

' ' When the solid fibre millboard, composed of not less 
than 50 per cent sulphite fibre used in making cases is 
not less than 0.08 inch in thickness, having a resistance 
of not less than 320 pounds to the square inch, Mullen 
test, the combined capacity of all containers in the case 
must not exceed six quarts ; provided, however, that the 
two ends shall consist of scored and flanged solid fibre 
millboard not less than 0.08 inch in thickness, having a 
resistance of not less than 320 pounds to the square inch, 
Mullen test, and each of these heads or ends shall be 
reenforced by a straight, unflanged piece of solid fibre 
board of the same thickness and strength of the heads or 
ends. The reenf orcing board shall be secured to the case 
ends by metal stitching around the edges and through the 
center, spaced not more than 3 inches apart. 

"All cases constructed of solid fibre millboard which 
is composed of not less than 50 per cent sulphite fibre, 
that contain more than a total of 6 quarts, shall have 
placed transversely in the center of their length a dia- 
phragm or division with scored and flanged connection to 
the sides, top and bottom of said case. This intermediate 
transverse diaphragm shall be composed of solid fibre 
millboard not less than 0.08 inch in thickness, having a 
resistance of not less than 320 pounds to the square inch, 
Mullen test. 

1 ' The heads of all glued ply fibre board or pulpboard 
cases must be formed of four laps of length within % 
inch of short dimension of head. When the short dimen- 
sion of head is greater than one-half of the long dimen- 
sion, one of the short dimension laps must be cut at 
center of case, and one of the long dimension laps must 
be scored in the center to bend over the shortened lap. 

' ' Cases constructed of glued ply fibre board or pulp- 



FOREIGN PARCEL POST SHIPMENTS 701 

board or of solid fibre millboard composed of not less 
than 50 per cent sulphite fibre must be creased, not cut, 
to produce a reenforcing fillet on the inner side of fold. 
This requirement will apply alike to flanged ends and 
flanged intermediate transverse diaphragms as well as to 
the side members. 

"The side lap of glued ply fibre board or pulpboard 
cases must be at least 1% inches wide, double stitched, 
or giued and stitched, with flat wire not less than % inch 
wide and of suitable thickness, with stitches spaced not 
more than 2% inches apart. Machine used must be 
capable of driving the wire through the fibre board so 
that the stitching, when completed, will be perfect. 

' ' Cases constructed of solid fibre board composed of 
not less than 50 per cent sulphite fibre where the total 
contents do not exceed 6 quarts shall have the side lap 
not less than 1 inch wide, single stitched with flat wire 
not less than % mcn wide and of suitable thickness, with 
stitches spaced not more than 1% inches apart. Machine 
used must be capable of driving the wire through the 
solid fibre millboard so that the stitching, when com- 
pleted, will be perfect. The heads of all glued ply fibre 
board or pulpboard cases must be closed with animal glue 
coated on the entire contact surfaces. 

" Cases constructed of solid fibre millboard composed 
of not less than 50 per cent sulphite fibre must have heads 
flanged out, both flanges being stitched to the case, sides, 
top, and bottom, with flat wire not less than % inch wide 
and of suitable thickness spaced not more than iy 2 inches 
apart. The width of flanges on heads and diaphragms 
must be not less than 1 inch, including fillet. 

"Rivets, if equal or superior in strength to the wire 
stitching, may be used. 

"Double-faced corrugated strawboard used in making 
double-faced strawboard cases, must be of corrugated 
strawboard, with inner and outer facings of fibre board 
or pulpboard, both facings having proper bending quali- 
ties, firmly glued to the corrugated sheet, with the outer 
facings waterproofed. 



702 EXPORT PACKING 

"When the outer facing of the double-faced corru- 
gated strawboard is not less than 0.018 inch in thickness, 
having a resistance of not less than 85 pounds to the 
square inch. Mullen test, and the inner facing is not less 
than 0.018 inch in thickness, having a resistance of not 
less than 85 pounds to the square inch, Mullen test, the 
combined board having a resistance of not less than 200 
pounds to the square inch, Mullen test, and an inner 
mantle of double-faced corrugated strawboard is ar- 
ranged and constructed to closely fit inside the case, this 
mantle having a resistance of not less than 175 pounds 
to the square inch, Mullen test, the combined capacity of 
all containers in the case must not exceed 6 quarts. 

"The mantle shall be made in one piece of double- 
faced corrugated strawboard, and shall be accurately 
fitted to the inside of the container, with a close fitting 
edge butt arranged longitudinally along the center of 
one of the sides (not heads) of the case. This flush edge 
butt to be located approximately midway between the top 
and bottom edges of said side of case. 

"Each double-faced corrugated strawboard case shall 
be made out of one piece of material. The edge connec- 
tion of the side to the end must be close fitting and be 
secured by a single cloth or sealing strip not less than 2 
inches in width and having a resistance of not less than 
120 pounds to the square inch, Mullen test, extending the 
entire length of the seam and secured by animal glue to 
the box. Double cloth sealing strips may be used if the 
inner strip is made not less than 1% inches wide and the 
outer strip not less than 2% inches wide, each cloth 
having a resistance of not less than 60 pounds to the 
square inch, Mullen test, each thickness extending the 
entire length of the seam, the inner being firmly glued to 
the case, and the outer being efficiently and firmly glued 
to the inner cloth and to the case. 

"The heads of all double-faced corrugated straw- 
board cases containing a total of not more than 4 quarts, 
must be formed with four flaps, each pair of flaps but- 
ting at approximately the center line of the head. Cases 



FOREIGN PARCEL POST SHIPMENTS 703 

containing a total of more than 4 quarts, but not more 
than 6 quarts, must have the two inner flaps butt at the 
center line of the head and the two outer flaps each 
cover the entire head. Cases containing a total of more 
than 6 quarts, but not more than 8 quarts, must have both 
inner and outer flaps cover the entire area of the head ; 
provided that cases containing a total of more than 4 
quarts, but not more than 8 quarts, may consist of two 
complete double-faced corrugated strawboard cases, one 
closely fitted inside the other, the inner case made of 
double-faced corrugated strawboard having a resistance 
of not less than 175 pounds to the square inch, Mullen 
test, and the outer case made of double-faced corrugated 
strawboard having a resistance of not less than 200 
pounds to the square inch, Mullen test, fully complying 
with these requirements and specifications, and with the 
heads of each case formed with four flaps, each pair of 
flaps butting at the center line of the head. 

"Heads must be closed with animal glue coated on the 
entire contact surface. 

"A corrugated strawboard case of the triple slide 
telescope type is approved for the transportation of 
inflammable liquids in quantity not exceeding 4 quarts 
in one outside container and must be constructed as 
follows : 

' ' Each case shall be of the triple slide telescope type, 
each slide being made of one piece material with seams 
and closing edges secured by single cloth sealing strips 
not less than 2 inches in width, and having a resistance of 
not less than 120 pounds to the square inch, Mullen test, 
extending the entire length of the seam, and secured by 
animal glue to the box. Double cloth sealing strips may 
be used if the inner strip is made not less than iy 2 inches 
wide and the outer strip not less than 2% inches wide, 
each cloth having a resistance of not less than 60 pounds 
to the square inch, Mullen test, each thickness extending 
the entire length of the seam, the inner being firmly glued 
to the case and the outer being efficiently and perma- 
nently glued to the inner cloth and to the case. 



704 EXPORT PACKING 

"The double-faced corrugated strawboard used must 
have both facings not less than 0.016 inch in thickness 
having a resistance of not less than 75 pounds to the 
square inch, Mullen test, the combined board having a 
resistance of not less than 175 pounds to the square inch, 
Mullen test. Both facings must have proper bending 
quality and be firmly glued to the corrugated sheet. The 
outer facing must be waterproofed. ' ' 

Boxes of fibre board, pulp board, solid mill board and 
corrugated strawboard, may not only be of the described 
one piece construction but may be of two piece or three 
piece construction, provided the material used together 
with the use of an inside lining or mantle conforms to 
the specifications above given as to strength and thick- 
ness. Construction may be of any of the usually accepted 
methods, but the joints must be made by tape, stitching 
and gluing as provided above. 

Bags.— Possibly the materials most commonly 
shipped by parcel post in bags are those in powder form 
and the great desideratum therefore is to prevent the 
sifting of the contents. The cloth, of whatever nature, 
must be closely woven, of a strength not less than 200 
pounds to the square inch, Mullen test. 

The largest manufacturer in the United States of. 
photographic goods states that cameras by parcel post 
are always packed in heavy double strawboard boxes 
wrapped in strong waterproof bags. 

Bundles in the Parcel Post.— If contents of a parcel 
post bundle are such as not necessarily to require a 
stiff outside container, they may be forwarded in a 
package wrapped either with burlap, Osnaburg, sheeting, 
a combination of paper and cloth, two or more thick- 
nesses of heavy waterproof kraft paper weighing not 
less than what is known as No. 60 or duplex waterproof 
wrapping paper strengthened with either cords or wire, 
if the instructions of the American Red Cross are to be 
followed. Whatever the wrapping material may be it 
should have a resistance of at least 120 pounds per square 
inch, Mullen test. The outside cover should be folded 



FOREIGN PARCEL POST SHIPMENTS 705 

twice before closing at the top and have the ends folded 
down and across, the pointed end so formed being folded 
over and then np and tightly tied with twine fastened 
with a loop knot. A New York concern doing a large mail 
order business by parcel post states that it always uses 
boxes made of fibre board, wrapped in a cloth lined 
tarred coating material weighing 70 to 80 pounds per 
ream, which it is almost impossible to tear. 

Liquids and Semi-Liquids in the Mails.— The United 
States regulations provide that liquids, oil, paste, salves 
and other articles easily liquefiable, are admitted to the 
parcel post mails of many countries (for exceptions see 
Official Postal Guide), provided they are packed in ac- 
cordance with the regulations prescribed for the admis- 
sion of such substances to the United States parcel post 
mails. More detailed and specific instructions applying 
to foreign parcel post mails are those issued by the 
Belgian government which have been translated as 
follows : 

"Liquids, oils, greases, and other articles easily lique- 
fiable must fulfill the following conditions: 

"If they are in strong glass bottles containing 4 
ounces (113.40 gr.) or less, the total quantity sent in a 
package can not exceed 24 ounces (680.39 gr.), liquid 
measure. Each bottle must be wrapped in paper or some 
absorbent substance, and then the whole placed in a card- 
board box, or in a box of similar material, and packed in 
a receptacle or cardboard of good quality corrugated on 
both sides. The corners of the receptacle must be her- 
metically closed and tied with string in a manner to pre- 
vent leakage of the liquids in case the container is broken, 
and the entire package must be wrapped in strong paper 
and tied with string. Bottles containing a maximum of 
4 ounces of liquid (113.40 gr.) may be packed as outlined 
in the next two paragraphs. 

"In the case of glass bottle^ holding more than 4 
ounces (113.40 gr.) the total quantity sent in a package 
must not exceed 16 ounces (453.69 gr.) liquid measure. 
The bottles must be very solid and inclosed in a block or 



706 EXPORT PACKING 

tube of metal, wood, cardboard, or some material; and 
between the bottle and the tube or the block must be 
placed a certain quantity of cotton felt, or some other 
absorbent material. The block or tube, if it be of wood 
or cardboard, must have a thickness of at least 3 milli- 
meters for bottles holding 8 ounces (226.80 gr.) at the 
most, and of at least 5 millimeters for bottles holding 
more than 8 ounces. The block or tube must be rendered 
waterproof by the application, on the inside, of paraffin 
or of some other suitable substance, and must be closed 
with a stopper so threaded that it will be necessary to 
give it at least a turn and a half in order to remove it. 
The cover must be provided with a washer, so that the 
liquid can not escape, should the bottle be broken. A 
number of bottles separately packed according to the 
foregoing instructions can be put in one package, pro- 
vided the maximum weight and dimensions prescribed 
by these rules are not exceeded. 

"Bottles containing liquids can also be packed in 
solid receptacles well closed with wood, metal, or water- 
proof corrugated cardboard. A space must be left 
around the bottles and filled with bran, sawdust, or any 
other absorbent material in a sufficient quantity to absorb 
all the liquid should the bottle be broken. 

"When the liquid is in a metal receptacle, the recep- 
tacle must be suitably sealed and put in a box." 

Watches by Parcel Post.— Packages of watches 
shipped by parcel post would seem to be particularly sub- 
ject to danger from pilfering, especially as the post 
office must be able readily to inspect the contents and in 
consequence the packages are usually sent unsealed. A 
large manufacturer of watches believes that his aston- 
ishingly small loss by pilfering is due to no small extent 
to the fact that his packages are relatively inconspicuous. 
If the packages were clustered with red wax the loss 
would doubtless be much greater. Watches shipped by 
parcel post are packed in standard containers made for 
the purpose of heavy corrugated paper in the manner of 
folding boxes. One large shipper writes : i l Our watches 




Courtesy of Waltlwm, 
Watch Cases for Parcel Post Shipment. 



TVatch Co. 



Watches are first packed in individual boxes which are placed in cartons. 
Cartons are wrapped in heavy, high-grade oil cloth, and then in heavy wrapping 
paper. 




Courtesy of Victor Talking Machine Co. 
Phonograph Eecords Packed for Parcel Post Shipment. 

Photograph shows a single record in envelope, the required number of 
records in waxed paper, an empty fibre board container and container corded 
and marked for shipment. 

707 



708 EXPORT PACKING 

are first placed in individual boxes so wrapped with 
tissue paper that there is no play in the box, or they lie 
in a nest in the box which prevents the watch from bang- 
ing against the side of the box. The individual boxes 
are then placed in cartons holding 12 each, and the car- 
tons are wrapped in corrugated paper around which is 
placed a tar lined paper which is impervious to moisture, 
and then there is a final layer of plain paper tied with 
heavy twine.' ' 

Another large watch manufacturer states in reference 
to shipments of watches by parcel post: "Our watch 
movements and cased watches are packed as follows : The 
movements in tin containers and the cased watches in 
cardboard containers, packed so many to a package, 
depending upon the size of the watches, the average pack- 
age weighing not more than 11 pounds. Of course, four to 
five pounds of this amount are included in the weight of 
the packing material of the container. The merchandise 
is solidly and safely packed with a wadding of tissue 
paper, the tissue paper being laid in the bottom of the 
box, the merchandise laid on that, further tissue paper 
carefully wadded on all sizes so that the merchandise is 
entirely surrounded by a wadding of tissue paper. This 
package, in turn, is wrapped in heavy quality high grade 
oilcloth in such a manner that water will not enter the 
cracks, and carefully tied with string, and this package 
again packed in high grade heavy quality wrapping 
paper and tied with the best quality of heavy hemp cord. 
All packages are shipped unsealed.' ' 

Hats by Parcel Post.— A large exporter of hats 
writes : "During the war and even up to the present time, 
on account of irregular freight sailings and high freight 
rates, most of our shipments have gone forward by parcel 
post. In packing for parcel post the packages must, of 
course, conform in weight and size with the regulations 
of the postal law. We have used various methods of 
packing for parcel post but the one we are now using 
and which we think gives the best results is as follows : 

"The round pasteboard carton containing six hats 



FOREIGN PARCEL POST SHIPMENTS 709 

is placed in a square corrugated carton and this is placed 
in another corrugated carton, and then wrapped in heavy 
wrapping paper and securely tied with strong twine. 

"In shipping to Venezuela, where the difficulties of 
transportation are very great, we ship in oilcloth bags. 
In this instance, the hats are not packed in round cartons 
but instead a dozen or more hats are nested together and 
placed in the bag which is then sewed and sealed. In 
some instances we have shipped to Venezuela in tin cans 
but this method is too expensive." 

Fountain Pens by Parcel Post.— Perhaps the largest 
exporter of fountain pens states that where single pens 
are shipped, the pen is packed in the box in which it is 
regularly sold in this country and then enclosed in a 
strong cardboard export box, wrapped in waterproof 
paper and strongly tied with cord. Shipments of quanti- 
ties of pens at a time are packed in tough cardboard 
boxes especially prepared of high grade material with 
strong resistance. The inside packages included within 
the outside container are of special character, already 
described in this chapter as " outlook boxes," all of which 
are sealed and each one bears the inscription, "Please 

count before breaking seal. This box contains 

pens, packed by , examined by , caps attached 

regular , sterling , gold filled " 

Talking Machine Records.— Disk records for talking 
machines are frequently forwarded by foreign parcel 
post. Usually records are packed singly in envelopes 
and the required number of enveloped records wrapped 
in waxed paper, the entire shipment being so divided that 
no single complete box will weigh more than 11 pounds. 
The packing of one of the most important manufacturers 
in this line is well illustrated in the accompanying photo- 
graph (see page 707). This company explains that the 
fibre board container is constructed of 100 point fibre 
board with an average resistance of 285 pounds to the 
square inch, "Mullen Test." The outside liner is of 
waterproof material. The box is reenf orced with a piece 
of strong linen tape which is glued to the outside, thus 



710 EXPORT PACKING 

taking much of the strain that occurs at the corners 
should the box be dropped. There are four flaps, top and 
bottom, each pair meeting completely at the center of the 
box. The bottom flaps are glued, the top must be left 
open for postal inspection. 

The flaps of this box are tied down with a good quality 
of jute twine. The markings are put on with stencil and 
marking ink and are afterward sprayed with a fixative to 
prevent smearing or rubbing. In addition to the protec- 
tion afforded by the top and bottom flaps, pieces of 
double faced corrugated board are used between the 
package of records and the box. Any space remaining is 
filled completely with these corrugated boards. 

The Combination Package.— The Advisory Com- 
mittee on International Parcel Post defines the combina- 
tion package as a " package which consists of two parts 
firmly attached together, both parts bearing the same 
address, one part being a sealed envelope containing the 
communication, fully prepaid at the letter rate of post- 
age; the other being an unsealed package containing 
samples of merchandise or printed matter fully prepaid 
at the appropriate rate of postage. " All of which means 
that it is possible to send together a catalog and a letter 
referring thereto, or a lot of samples and a correspond- 
ing letter, so that letter and package will reach destina- 
tion at the same time. The letter only pays first class 
rates. These combination packages may be sent at pres- 
ent to some fifteen countries. 

The combination package may be in the form of an 
envelope with a binding piece for the letter, or in the 
form of a combined sack and envelope, and obviates the 
old and costly method of sending catalogs and samples 
first class in order to assure their arrival at the same 
time as a letter referring to them. This matter should 
be fully investigated by exporters. 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Abercrombie, David T 162 

Abyssinia 238 

Acajutla, Salvador 296 

Acetic acid 584 

Adelaide, Australia 240 

Advertising matter on cases, 
16, 43, 60, 152, 226, 483, 

493, 552, 557 

Aeroplanes 641, 642 

Africa 239 

Agricultural Machinery — 
Disassembling . .377, 379, 383, 384 

Electric light plants 386 

General considerations ..369, 370 

Hand plows 403 

Instruction sheets ..378, 383, 392 

Plows 374 

Mowing and harvesting ma- 
chines 378 

Threshing machines 383 

Tractors 389 

Windmills 385 

Albania 238 

Alexandria, Egypt 261 

Algeria 238 

Amapala, Honduras 217, 267 

American Forestry 193 

American Bed Cross ....698, 704 
American Bussian Chamber of 

Commerce 295 

Amsterdam, Holland 266 

Antigua 250 

Antofagasta, Chile 246, 251 

Antwerp, Belgium 245 

Arabia 238 

Argentina 239 

Arica, Chile 246 

Armenia 295 

Aruba 260 

Asuncion, Paraguay 287 

Athens, Greece 264 

Australia . . 240, 241, 242, 243, 244 

Austria 245 

Automobiles — 

Band iron 321 

Commercial cars 317, 323 

Disassembling .310, 314, 322, 330 

711 



PAGE 

Automobiles — continued 

Dismantling 313, 322 

General considerations 304 

Ideal case 313 

Importance of base of case 

304, 310 

Knocked-down cars 306 

Lining of case 317, 318, 322 

Loose parts 313, 314 

Packing chassis 314, 322 

Packing on sides 310, 322 

Protection of car 317, 323 

Eeducing size of ease . .310, 313 

Kust prevention 318 

Skids 305 

Standardized cases 306 

Stenciling 321 

Timber used 

310, 313, 321, 322 

Touring cars ..305, 306, 309, 310 

Automobile lighting apparatus 422 

Automobile starting apparatus 422 
Automobile tires. See Tires. 



Bags — 

Double bags 595 

For flour 596 

General considerations 593, 594 

Marking 597 

Material for 594 

Misuse of 596 

Parcel post 704 

Sewing 595 

Sifting 594, 595 

Bahama Islands 245 

Bahia Blanca, Argentina .... 239 

Bales — 

Baling department 171 

Baling press 78, 79, 80 

Banding 81, 82, 151 

Compression 

80, 81, 169, 170, 172, 175 

Ears of 82, 151, 176 

Economies of 

77, 164, 165, 166, 169 

Folding goods 150, 172 



712 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Bales — continued 

For Colombia 256 

' ' Forming Box " 78 

Goods suitable for 

77, 163, 164, 176 

How to make 78, 175 

Insurance against hooks . . 83 

Lining 81, 150, 170 

Outside covering 81, 150, 170 

Pilfering 175 

Protection against hooks ... 82 

Sewing 151 

Size of 81, 149, 170 

Stenciling 15, 152, 175 

Waterproofing 83, 84,150 

Weight of 81, 256 

Baling Press 78, 79, 80 

Ball bearings 421 

Banding iron. See Strapping. 

Barbados 250 

Barbed Wire 607 

Barranquilla, Colombia 256 

<( Barrel and Box" 116 

Barrels — 

Acetic acid 584 

Bolts 582, 583 

Boric acid 583 

Box strapping 582 

Cement ..572, 575, 576, 577, 578 

Chain . . . . 581 

China 565 

Flake graphite 588 

Flour 571, 572 

General considerations .... 
193, 194, 199, 562, 563, 

564, 565 

Glassware 565, 584,587 

Glucose 584 

Graphite crucibles 588 

Graphite facings 588 

Hardware 583 

Incandescent lamps 587 

Interstate Commerce Commis- 
sion specifications 

588, 589, 590, 591, 592 

Lard 570 

Lath nails 581 

Leakage 564, 565 

Oils 209, 564, 570, 571 

Packing 605 

Packinghouse products 

565, 566, 569, 570 

Pickled meat 570 

Plaster 584 

Eosin 584 

Sifting 565 

Soda ash 584 



PAGE 

Barrels — continued 

Spring steel 582 

Tobacco 584 

Wire 581 

Wire nails 578 

Bath tubs 669, 670, 671 

Battens 72, 104 

Batum 295 

Belgium 245, 705 

Belize, British Honduras .... 249 

Beltran, Colombia 257 

Bermuda 246 

Bicycles 672, 675 

Bill of lading ..30, 31, 46, 59, 227 

Billiard tables 511 

Biscuits 532 

Black Sea 287 

Bluefields, Nicaragua ........ 285 

Bogota, Colombia 256, 257 

Bogus paper 61 

Bolivia 246, 247, 473, 478 

Bolts ..65, 66, 146, 147, 429, 582 

Bombay, India 268 

Bonaire 260 

Boole cloths 481 

Boric acid 583 

Bottles 443 

Boxes — 

Branding 108 

Cleats 

50, 117, 118, 122, 125, 133, 

. 134 

Construction of 

50, 110, 113, 116, 130, 184 

Corner posts 89 

Cribbing supports 89 

Defects of 53, 189 

Hardwoods 54 

Ideal 54, 55 

Joining 117, 132 

Lumber 

53, 54, 116, 127, 128, 129, 

130, 131, 190, 191 

1 ' Lock-Cornered " 138 

Marking. See "Marking." 
Machinery. See chapters 
XIII, XIV. 

Nailing 

...117, 123, 134, 135, 136, 137 

Partitions 101 

Screws 73, 74, 77 

Sealing 123, 143 

Shape of 90, 91 

Size and weight of .... 86, 124 

Skidding 109, 110, 113, 114 

Staples 118 

Step joint 90 



INDEX 



713 



PAGE 

Boxes — continued 

Strapping 

57, 58, 120, 121, 130, 139, 

140, 141 

Styles of 121, 125 

Surfacing ....117, 122, 131, 132 
Waterproofing. See Water- 
proofing. 

Wire-bound 118 

Wire strapping 107, 120 

See various chapters. 
Bracing — 

Cases 89 

Crates 67 

Machinery 102 

See various chapters. 

Branding 108 

Brazil 247, 248, 249, 679, 687 

Bric-a-brac 469 

Breakage 30 

Brisbane, Australia 240 

British East Africa 249 

British Guiana 249 

British Honduras 249 

British Somaliland 250 

British West Indies 250 

Buenaventura, Colombia 256 

Buenos Aires . . 239, 246, 287, 481 

Bulgaria 251 

Bulky Articles — 

Aeroplanes 641, 642 

Case construction 627 

General considerations 627 

Locomotives 

..629, 630, 633, 634, 635, 636 

Marine engines 641 

Motor boats 639, 640, 641 

Pilfering 629 

Eailway cars 636, 639 

Sling marks 628 

Waterproofing 628 

Bundles — 

Automobile tires 600 

Banding iron 608 

Barbed wire 607 

Barrels 605 

Electrical wire 608 

Furniture 598, 599 

Galvanized wire 607 

General considerations ..597, 598 

Handles 603 

Hoops 603, 6'04 

Iron safes 599 

Lumber 603, 604 

Marking 598 

Parcel post 704 

Picture mouldings 603 



PAGE 

Bundles — continued 

Shovels 600, 603 

Staves 603, 604, 605 

Steel bars 605, 607 

Steel sheets 607 

Steel pipe 607 

Steel wire 606, 607 

Tags for steel goods 606 

Tying of 598 

"Bureau of Insular Affairs" 

266, 289 

Burma 211 

Burro 201, 239, 246, 288 

Butt joint 131, 133 

Calcium Carbide 616, 617 

Calcutta, India 268,272 

Callao, Peru 288 

Camel 201, 238, 239, 240, 287 

Canada 202, 697 

Canned goods, 38, 129, 519, 528, 531 

Caracas, Venezuela 302 

Carbonic acid gas 618 

Carboys 618, 623, 624, 625 

Cartons — 

Cereals 558 

Confectionery 558, 559 

Dolls 560 

Economy of space ....547, 551 

General considerations 

546, 547, 548, 551 

Lead pencils 559 

Printing inks 559 

Eubber goods 554, 557 

Shoes 551, 552, 553, 554, 557 

Toys '. 560 

Waterproof case linings . . . 551 

Cash registers 518 

Caspian Sea 287 

Cast iron 62, 426 

Caustic soda 615, 616 

Caution marks 

16, 60, 108, 109, 467, 660 

Ceiba, Honduras 217 

Celluloid 698 

Cement 572, 575, 576, 577, 578 

Central America 203, 216, 236 

Cereals 531, 558 

Cerro de Pasco 211 

Ceylon 268 

Chains 429, 581, 611 

Chandeliers 463 

Checking goods 39 

Chemicals 211 

Chicken wire 482, 484, 659 

Chile 212, 216, 246, 247 

China 254, 565 



714 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Ciudad Bolivar, Venezuela . . . 302 

Cleats 

50, 57, 61, 62, 70, 117, 118, 
122, 125, 133, 134, 135, 148 

Climatic conditions 

17, 201, 203, 234 

Colombia 

202, 203, 216, 254, 255, 256, 
257, 343, 386, 468, 473, 478, 

650, 680 

Colon, Panama 287 

Combination parcel post pack- 
age 710 

Combining small boxes 

643, 644, 645 

Confectionery 

452, 533, 534, 558, 559 

(( Compression-on-edge test" . . 

184, 185 

Constantinople, Turkey 298 

Constanza, Boumania 294 

Consular invoice 46 

Containers. See Boxes. 

Coolie 254 

Cooperage 191, 193, 194 

Corinto, Nicaragua 285 

Corner posts 89, 348 

' ' Cornerwise-compression-test ' ' 

184, 185 

Costa Bica 257 

Cottonseed oil 570, 571 

Crackers 532 

Crates — 

Bolting and nailing . .65, 66, 146 

Center of gravity . . 147 

Cleats 70, 148 

Description of 

...64, 125, 130, 143, 147, 149 

Joining and bracing 

66, 67, 68, 145 

Lumber in, 64, 65, 143, 144, 145 

Machinery 90, 344, 347 

Scabbing 71, 72 

Screws 73, 74, 77 

Shape of 91 

Skids 69, 72, 147, 148 

Strapping 72, 149 

< ' Three Way Corner ' ' 66 

Ventilating 95, 96 

Waterproofing. See "Water- 
proofing. ' ' 
See various chapters. 

Cresap, A. B 291 

Cribbing supports 89 

Crockery 449 

Cuba 257, 258, 482 

Curasao 260 



PAGE 

Customers' instructions 

7, 10, 18, 572 

Customs duties, 18, 236. See 
Chapter X. 

Customs regulations — 

Abyssinia 238 

Albania 238 

Algeria 238 

Arabia 238 

Armenia 295 

Australia .240, 241, 242, 243, 244 

Austria 245 

Bahama Islands 245, 250 

Belgium 245 

Bermuda 246 

Bolivia 246, 247 

Brazil 247, 248, 249 

British East Africa 249 

British Guiana 249 

British Honduras 249 

British Somaliland 250 

British West Indies 250 

Bulgaria 251 

Canary Islands 251 

Central America 237 

Chile 251, 252, 253 

China 233, 254 

Colombia 254, 255, 256, 257 

Costa Bica 257 

Cuba 257, 258 

Cyrenaica 297 

Denmark 258 

Dominican Bepublic 258, 259, 260 

Dutch East Indies 260 

Dutch Guiana 260 

Dutch West Indies 260 

Ecuador 261 

Egypt 261, 262 

Esthonia 295 

Finland 262 

France 262 

French Guiana 263 

French Indo-China 263 

French Somaliland 263 

French West Indies 263 

Germany 264 

Greece # . . . . 264 

Guatemala 265 

Haiti 266 

Hawaiian Islands 266 

Holland 266 

Honduras 267 

India ....268, 269, 270, 271, 272 

Italy 272 

Jamaica 273 

Japan 274 

Jugo-Slavia 274 



INDEX 



715 



PAGE 

Customs regulations — continued 

Latvia 295 

Libya 297 

Lithuania 295 

Madagascar 275 

Madeira Islands 275 

Mauritius 275 

Mexico 

275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 

280, 281, 282 

Need of studying 237 

New Zealand . . 282, 283, 284, 285 

Nicaragua 285 

Norway 286 

Panama 286 

Paraguay 287 

Persia 287 

Peru 288 

Philippine Islands 

288, 289, 290, 291, 292 

Poland 292 

Porto Eico 293 

Portugal 293 

Portuguese East Africa (Mo- 
zambique) 293 

Portuguese West Africa .... 294 

Eepublic of Azerbaijan .... 295 

Republic of Georgia 295 

Reunion 294 

Roumania 294 

Russia 294 

Salvador 295 

Siam 296 

Siberia 236 

Spain 296 

Straits Settlements 296 

Sweden . 297 

Switzerland 297 

Tripoli 297 

Tunis "298 

Turkey 233, 298 

Uganda 298 

Union of South Africa ... 299 

United Kingdom ...299, 300, 301 

Uruguay 301 

Variation in different coun- 
tries 231, 232 

Venezuela 302 

Cut glass 449 

Cuzco, Peru 211 

Cyrenaica 297 

Danzig 292 

Denmark 258 

Desirade 263 

' ' Diagonal-compression-test " .199 



PAGE 

' ' Diagonal-drop-test " 199 

Dire-Dawa 238 

Djibouti, French Somaliland . . 

238, 263 

Dolls 560 

Dominica 250 

Dominican Eepublic . . 258, 259, 260 
Donkey. See Burro. 

"Drop test" 184,185 

Drugs. See Pharmaceutical 

products. 
Drums — 

Calcium carbide 616, 617 

Caustic soda 615, 616 

General considerations ..... 

613, 614, 615 

Interstate Commerce Commis- 
sion Specifications 

618, 621, 622, 623 

Printers' ink 617 

Sulphuric acid 613 

War Department Specifica- 
tions 615 

Dutch East Indies 260 

Dutch Guiana 260 

Dutch West Indies 260 

Duties. See Chapter X. Page 
231. 

Ears on bales 82, 151, 176 

Ecuador 261 

Egypt 261, 696 

Electric fans 426 

Electric light plants 386 

Electric motors 386, 429 

England. See United King- 
dom. 

Eritrea 273 

Esthonia 295 

Excelsior 60, 61, 342, 444 

Facatativa, Colombia 257 

Finland 262 

Fitz Gerald, M. C. See chapter 
IV. 

Flour 537, 538, 571, 572, 596 

"Footwear Regulation Act" of 

New Zealand . . . 283, 284, 285 

Fountain pens 694, 709 

Forest Products Laboratory — 

Barrels 199 

Boxes 184, 186 

Branches of the work 180 

Experiments in 50 

Furniture 494 

Lumber 190 

Origin of 178 



716 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Forest Products Laboratory — cont. 

Service to business .178, 179, 183 

Testing methods . . 183, 184, 185 

Typical examples of work . 180 

Forks 417 

' ' Forming Box " 78 

Fragile goods, 39, 60, 102, 103. 
See also Glass, Glassware, 
etc. 

France 262 

Franck, Harry A 507 

Freemantle, Australia 240 

Freights — Weight basis ....... 29 

French Guiana 263 

French Indo-China 263 

French Somaliland 238, 263 

French West Indies 263 

Furniture — 

Bales 502, 505 

Billiard tables 511 

Bracing 501, 506 

Bundles 598 

Cases and crates 500, 506 

Criticisms of packing 

489, 490, 493 

Floor lamps 511 

Forest Products Laboratory 494 

General considerations 489 

Glass 502 

Knocked down furniture . . 

495, 501 

Lining of cases and crates . . 

501, 502, 506 

Manufacturing for export . . 493 

Marking : 505 

Metal bedsteads 495 

Office furniture 505, 506 

Packing for South Africa . . 496 

Packing for South America 499 

Phonographs 512, 513,514 

Pianos 507, 508, 511 

Eeduction in cubic space . . 499 

Steel furniture 505 

Strapping 502, 505 

Talking machines . .512, 513, 514 

Upholstered furniture 506 

Galatz, Boumania 294 

Geography, 6, 17, 19, 20, 49, 201, 234 

Georgetown, British Guiana . . 249 

Germany 264 

Ghent, Belgium 245 

Girardot, Colombia 257 

Glass containers. See Glass and 

Glassware. 
Glass and Glassware — 

Barrels 565, 584, 587 



PAGE 

Glass and Glassware — continued 

Bottles 

..443, 444, 445, 446, 449, 452 

Chandeliers 463 

Confectionery 452 

Crockery 449 

Cut glass 449- 

Furniture 502 

General considerations .... 

433, 434, 437 

Incandescent lamps 

...455, 456, 457, 458, 461, 587 

Lamp chimneys 446 

Pharmaceutical products . . . 

450, 451 

Photographic materials .... 468 

Eerlectors 464, 467 

Sheet glass 

437, 438, 439, 440, 443 

Writing inks 452, 455 

Glucose 584 

Graphite products 525, 588 

Gravity, center of 

108, 114, 147, 148, 628 

Great Britain. See United 
Kingdom. 

Greece 264 

Grenada 250 

Guadeloupe 263, 264 

Guatemala 265 

Guayaquil, Ecuador 261 



Haiti 266 

Hams 646 

Handles 417, 603 

Handles of webbing for boxes 

160, 161 

Hardware — 

Complaints regarding pack- 
ing 406, 407, 408 

Displaying in India 210 

General considerations of 

packing 406 

Miscellaneous examples .... 408 

Packing of saws 412, 413 

Packing of tools 411, 412 

Harris Garrard 217 

Harvesting machines 378 

Hats 677 

Havana, Cuba 257 

Hawaiian Islands 266 

Hazard machine 183, 185 

Helsingfors, Finland 262 

Hoes 417 

Hoisting machinery 349, 350 

Holland 266 



INDEX 



717 



PAGE 

Honduras 

...202, 203, 217, 218, 267, 477 
Honolulu, Hawaiian Islands . . 266 
Hooks, protection from, on bales 

82, 176 

Hoops 604 

Hops 539, 540 

Hosiery 481 

Hudnaco 211, 212 

Import duties. See Customs 
regulations as affecting 
packing, Chapter X, page 
231. Also specific coun- 
tries. 

Incandescent lamps 

..455, 456, 457, 458, 461, 587 

Incandescent mantles 467 

India 

202, 203, 204, 207, 208, 209, 
210, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272 
11 Indian Textile Journal' ' .... 204 
Inks ..540, 543, 544, 545, 559, 617 

Instruction sheets 378 

Insurance 28, 29, 30, 40, 83 

"Internal-pressure-test" 199 

Interstate Commerce Commis- 
sion — 
Barrel containers specifica- 
tions ..588, 589, 590, 591, 592 

Carboy specifications 

623, 624, 625 

Drums specifications 

618, 621, 622, 623 

Fibre and strawboard con- 

698, 699, 700, 701, 702* 703, 704 
Steel cylinder specifications 

625, 626 

Invoice 39, 59 

Italy 272 

Italian Somaliland 273 

Jamaica 250, 273 

Japan 274 

Joining 90, 117, 122, 123, 132 

Jugo-Slavia 274 

Kegs. See Barrels. 

Knit goods 481 

Knots 53, 116, 127, 191 

Knoiolton, H. N. See Chapter 
III, page 48. 

Labels 59, 528, 545 

La Dorado, Colombia 257 



PAGE 

La Guaira, Venezuela 302 

Lag screws 113 

La Libert ad, Salvador 296 

Lamp chimneys 446 

Lamps 511 

La Pas, Bolivia 246 

La Plata 239 

Lard 534, 537, 570, 646 

Lath nails 581 

Latin-America 233, 235 

Latvia 295 

Lead pencils 559 

Leakage from barrels 564 

Leather 657, 658, 659, 660, 663 

Leather belting 660, 663 

Leather, patent 658, 659, 660 

Leeward Islands 250 

Ees Saintes 263 

Libya 297 

' ' Linderman Joint " 

122, 123, 131, 133 

Lining. See Waterproofing. 

Lithuania 295 

Llama 201, 246, 288 

Lock-Corner 138 

Locomotives 

..629, 630, 633, 634, 635, 636 
Lourenco Marquez, Portuguese 

East Africa 293 

Lumber — 

Barrels 194, 197 

Crates 64, 65, 145 

Defects of ..53, 189 

Groups 123, 144, 192 

Hardwoods 54, 329 

Kind to use ..53, 127, 190, 369 
Moisture in, 53, 116, 144, 157, 190 

Nailing 55, 156 

Packing 604 

Size of 53, 54 

Surfacing 117 

Thickness 128, 129 

Width of 

..54, 116, 128, 129, 130, 131 
See various chapters. 

Machinery — 

Blocking 101, 341, 342 

Bracing 102, 341, 342 

Crates for 90, 350 

Construction of cases and 

crates 344, 347, 348 

Disassembling 

332, 333, 334, 337, 370, 374, 379 

Electric light plants ....... 386 

Extra heavy machinery . . . 353 

For Colombia 343 



718 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Machinery — continued 

Hand Plows 403 

Hoisting machinery .... 349, 350 

In India 209 

Machine tools 349 

Marking 337, 634 

Method in general of pack- 
ing 60 

Mining 39 

Mowing and harvesting ma- 
chines 378- 

Naked shipments 610, 611 

■ Packing list 341 

Partitions in cases 101 

Plows 374 

Printing presses 

354, 355, 356, 359, 360 

Protecting bright parts . . 96, 97 
Protection from moisture . . 

92, 96, 341 

Protection from rust 

62, 95, 337, 338, 341, 634 

Small parts 103, 338, 341 

Stamping 634 

Steam pumps 353 

Tags 337, 341, 634 

Threshing machines 383 

Tractors 389 

Weight of cases 343 

Windmills 385 

Wire-stitching machinery . . 361 

Wire-working machinery . . . 362 

Machine tools 349 

Madagascar 275 

Madeira Islands 275 

Magdalena Biver, Colombia . . 257 

Manchuria 254 

Manila. See Philippine Islands. 

Maracaibo, Venezuela ....302, 478 

Marie Galante Islands 263 

Marine Engines 641 

Marking — 

Agree with invoice and bill of 

lading 59 

Bags 597 

Bales 15, 152, 175 

Bundles 598 

Careless marking 36 

Caution marks 

16, 60, 108, 109, 467 

Center of gravity 108 

Concealed by advertising mat- 
ter . 16 

Contents on cases 40 

Errors in 15, 45 

Importance of .... 14, 44, 59, 85 

Leather 658 



PAGE 

Marking — continued 

Machinery 337, 634 

Marking fluid 107, 152 

Naked shipments 609 

Position of 16, 59, 108 

Eequisites of 15, 45, 60, 108 

Sanitary ware 670 

Second-hand material shows 

old marks 17 

Size of 59 

Sling position 108, 628 

Small shipments 15 

Steamship instructions 46 

Stenciling of 

16, 59, 108, 152, 635 

Tires 666 

Tractors 396 

See different chapters. 
See various countries. 

Martinique 263, 264 

Masica, Honduras 217 

Mauritius 275 

Maxwell Hu 193 

Mayobamba, Peru 212 

Melbourne, Australia 240 

"Merchandise Maries Acts," 

India and Ceylon 

268, 269, 270, 271, 272 

"Merchandise Marks Act" of 

United Kingdom 299' 

"Merchandise Marks Laws" of 

India 272 

"Merchandise Marks Manual" 272 

Mexico 

275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 

281, 282 

Miller, H. H 278 

Mining machinery 39 

Moisture — 

Absorbers of 209 

In lumber 53, 116, 157, 190 

Protection from. See Water- 
proofing. 

Mollendo, Peru 211, 246 

Mombasa, British East Africa 249 

Montevideo, Uruguay 287 

Motor boats 639,640,641 

Moving picture films 678 

Mowing machines 378 

Mozambique 293 

Mule 

201, 217, 238, 239, 246, 268 
285, 287, 522 



Nails. See Nailing. 
Nailing — 

Boxes 



117 



INDEX 



719 



PAGE 

Nailing — continued 

Cement coated nails 

56, 65, 117, 122, 123, 135, 

141, 154 

Cleats 57, 122 

Crates 65, 66, 145, 146 

Driving 137 

Effect of different classes of 

woods 55, 156, 157 

Factors in correct nailing . . 

55, 134, 135, 136, 152, 153, 
186 

Gauge of nails 

56, 117, 122, 123, 136, 154, 156 

Green wood 157 

Head of nail 156 

Overdriving nails 56, 158 

Schedule for ..55, 123, 158, 159 

Spacing of nails 

...56, 123, 136, 137, 146, 158 

Staggered 56, 57, 146 

Strapping / 584 140, 141 

Thickness of wood 158 

See various chapters. 

Nails, wire nails 432 

Naked shipments — 

Chains 611 

General considerations . . 608, 609 

Large machinery 610, 611 

Marking 609, 610 

Pig iron 609 

Protection against rust .... 611 
War Department Specifica- 
tions 611, 612 

National Association of Box 

Manufacturers 55 

National Automobile Chamber 

of Commerce 309 

Newlin, J. A 152 

N. Y. Quartermaster Depot . . 80 

New Zealand ...282, 283, 284, 285 

New Zealand Gazette 285 

Nitric acid 618 

Nicaragua 285 

Norway 286 

Nova Scotia 202 

Numbering — 

Careless numbering 36 

Character of 108 

Consecutive 45 

Errors in 16 

Nuts 429 

Oil Cloth 671, 672 

Oils 

525, 526, 527, 537, 564, 570, 571 

Oleomargarine 534 



PAGE 

Orinoco River, Venezuela .... 302 
Oruro, Bolivia 246 

Backing for Export — 

Advantages of good packing 

28, 29 

Case, weight of 38 

Cheap packing a false econ- 
omy 9 

Checking and weighing goods 39 

Chicken wire 482 

Climatic conditions 201 

Consulting customers 28 

Criticism of 27 

Duties, minimizing of . . 236, 273 
Economy of space in. .26, 29, 324 
Expensive packing may cost 

more than possible losses 25 
Export packing triangle .... 10 

Export service 8 

Extra charge for 24, 25 

Factors in 4, 6, 17, 48, 85 

Importance of 3, 324, 370 

Indifference of manufactur- 
ers 23, 26, 27, 34, 35 

Inspection before shipment . 30 

Instruction sheets 377 

Method of packing contents 60 
Method of packing to be con- 
sidered 26 

Muleback, for 216 

New spirit in 5 

Not domestic 38, 49 

Packing department 

19, 20, 23, 24, 374 

Parcel post 691 

Results of poor packing .... 86 
Second-hand material ... 17, 29 

Special instructions 

7, 10, 26, 33, 36, 233 

Special packing 232, 233 

Tin, use of 43, 44 

See various chapters. 

Backing house products 

..565, 566, 569, 570, 645, 646 

Backing list 45, 60, 341, 635 

Bails 618 

Faints 521, 522, 525 

Paita, Beru 288 

Banama 286 

Baraguay 287 

Baper 

649, 650, 651, 652, 653, 654, 657 

Bard, Brazil 246, 247 

Baramaribo, Dutch Guiana . . 2'60 
Barcel post — 
Addressing 690, 691 



720 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Parcel post — continued 

Advertising matter by ..684, 685 
American Eed Cross . . . 698, 704 

Bags 704 

Belgium 705 

Bundles 704 

Canada 697 

Celluloid 698 

"Certificate of mailing" .. 687 

Combination package 710 

Customs declaration 688 

Customs duties 685 

Egypt 696 

Fibre and strawboard con- 
tainers 698 

Fountain pens 694, 709 

General considerations . . 681, 682 
General regulations ...684, 686 

Hats 708 

Inspection of 693, 694 

Insurance 687 

Interior preparation . . . .694, 695 
Interstate Commerce Commis- 
sion specifications for con- 

698, 699, '766,' 701," 702* 703, 

704 

Jewelry 695 

Liquids 705 

Metal containers 695, 696 

Outside container 696 

Packing 691, 692, 693 

Eegistration 687 

Russian parcels 691, 697 

Samples by 684 

Talking machine records . . 709 

Textiles 482 

Tin containers 698 

War Department Specifica- 
tions 691 

Watches 706 

When to use 683 

Wood containers 698 

Partitions as shock absorbers . 101 

Patras, Greece 264 

Pernambuco, Brazil 247 

Penang, Straits Settlements . . 297 

Persia 287 

Persian Gulf 287 

Peru 202, 211, 212, 288 

Pharmaceutical products 

450, 451, 538, 539 

Philippine Islands 

24, 44, 288, 289, 290, 291, 292 

" Philippine Tariff Act" 289 

Phonographs 512, 513, 514 

Pianos 507, 508, 511 



PAGE 

Pickled meat 570 

Picture mouldings 603, 679 

Pig iron 609 

Pilfering — 

Advertising matter on cases 

assists 16, 226 

Argentina 240 

Attitude of steamship com- 
panies 222 

Australia 240 

Automobiles 306, 321 

Bales 175 

Barrels 532 

Canned goods 527 

Cartoned goods 551 

Chicken wire 482, 484, 659 

Claims for 223 

Deck cargo 629 

Dominican Republic 258 

"Foul" bill of lading 227 

Fountain pens 694 

Goods exposed to 14, 226 

How it occurs 223, 224 

Insurance ..29, 30, 220, 221, 222 

Italy 272 

Losses due to 219 

Methods of preventing .... 
14, 43, 142, 224, 225, 226, 

227, 228, 229, 482 

Parcel-post packages 221 

Safety clips . . 142, 228, 229, 230 

Salvador 296 

Sealing boxes 

...43, 123, 143, 228, 229, 230 

Shoes 552, 553 

Strapping to prevent, 40, 142, 226 

Textiles 483 

Tires 665 

U. S. Chamber of Commerce 

of the Argentine on 221 

Watches 676, 706 

Pirceus, Greece 264 

Plaster 584 

Plows 374, 403 

Poland 292 

Port Castries, St. Lucia 250 

Port conditions 202 

Port Limon, Costa Rica .... 257 

Porto Bico 293 

Portugal 293 

Portuguese East Africa (Mo- 
zambique) , . . 293 

Portuguese West Africa 294 

Potosi, Bolivia 246 

Precision instruments 421 

Printing presses 

354, 355, 356, 359, 360 



INDEX 



721 



PAGE 

Progreso, Mexico 275 

Puerto Cabello, Venezuela . . . 302 

Puerto Colombia, Colombia . . 256 

Puntarenas, Costa Bica 257 

Railway cars 636, 639 

Becoopering ..33, 34, 35, 36, 37 

Bed Sea 204, 234, 239, 263 

Seduction of size of case. See 
Shrinking the package, 
Chapter XII, page 324. 

Beflectors 464, 467 

Bepublic of Azerbaijan 295 

Republic of Georgia 295 

Beunion 294 

Bio de Janeiro, Brazil 247 

Bio Grande do Sul, Brazil .:.. 247 

Bivets 429 

Bosario 239 

Rosin 584 

Rotterdam, Holland 266 

Boumania 294 

Bubber goods 

29, 210, 211, 554, 557, 600 

Bussia 294, 691, 697 

Bust Prevention — 

Automobiles 318 

Factors in 62, 95 

Iron and steel 62 

Machinery 62, 95, 337, 338 

Metal containers 96 

Ventilating cases to prevent 

95, 96 

See various chapters. 

Saba 260, 261 

Safe Pack Mills 78, 116, 125 

Safes 599 

Safety clips for pilfering .... 

142, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229 

St. Barthelemy 263 

St. Eustatius 260, 261 

St. Kitts 250, 261 

St. Lucia 250 

St. Martin 260, 261, 263 

St. Vincent 250 

" Sale of Food and Drugs Act" 

of New Zealand 284 

Salonica, (Greece 264 

Salvador 202, 295, 478 

Sanitary ware 669, 670, 67l 

San Lorenzo, Honduras . . 217, 267 

Santiago, Chile 212 

Santiago, Cuba 257 

Santos, Brazil 247 

Scabbing 71, 72 

Scales. See Weighing Ap- 
paratus. 



PAGE 

Screws 73, 74, 75 

Sealing — 

Boxes 

..123, 142, 143, 228, 229, 230 

Safety seals 

43, 142, 228, 229, 230 

Straps 43 

Sewing machines .... 218, 425, 426 

Sewing of bags 595 

Sheathing 144 

"Shiplap Joint" 131 

Shock absorbers ...60, 61, 98, 101 

Shoes 551, 552, 553, 554, 557 

Shotguns . . . 417 

Shovels 417, 600 

Shrinking the package — 

Accomplishments 325 

Advantages of ...324, 325,373 

Disassembling 332, 33.3 

How it may be done 

325, 326, 329, 330 

Siam 296 

Siberia 236, 348 

' ' Side-compression-test " 199 

"Side-drop-test" 199 

Sifting from bags 594, 595 

Silk goods 482, 483, 484 

Silverware 677 

Singapore, Straits Settlements 296 
Skids — 

Crates 69, 72, 147, 347, 350 

Importance of 109, 110, 113 

Slots for slinging 114 

Slotting for sling 72, 114, 148 

Slings, position of, shown by 

marking 108, 113, 628 

Slushing compound ....96, 97, 634 

Small boxes, combining 

643, 644, 645 

Small parts 103 

Smoked meats 646 

Smyrna 298 

Soda ash 584 

SomgXiland. See French, Brit- 
ish, etc. 

South America 

49, 202, 203, 211, 216, 522, 

553, 678 

Spain 296 

Spring steel 582 

Staggering nails 57, 66 

Staples .'. 118 

Staves 604, 605 

Steam pumps 353 

Steel 45, 46, 208, 607 

Steel bars 605, 607 

Steel cylinders 625, 626 



722 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Stenciling 

16, 45, 46, 59, 108, 321, 635 

Storage batteries 462, 463 

Stoves 62 

Straits Settlements 296 

Strapping — 

Automobile cases 321 

Bales 81, 82, 151 

Crates 72, 149 

Increases strength of case . . 139 

Joints of 121 

Kinds 57, 104, 107, 139 

Location of 

58, 104, 117, 120, 140 

Method of applying 

57, 58, 107, 120 

Nailing ..58, 104, 121, 140, 141 

Nailless 58, 139, 140, 159 

Packing 582, 608 

Pilfering 40, 139 

Stretching 58, 121,140 

Thickness and width of .... 

57, 58, 120 

War Department Specifica- 
tions 117 

Wire 107, 139, 140 

See various chapters. 

Straw 61 

Stuffing material 60, 61, 98 

Sues Canal 204 

Sulphuric acid 613 

Surfacing 117, 122, 131, 132 

Sweden 297 

Switchboards 342 

Switzerland 297 

Sydney, Australia 240 



Table glassware 443, 444 

Tags 59, 337, 341, 399, 598 

Talking machines ....512, 513, 514 
Talking machine records .... 709 

Tamatave, Madagascar 275 

Tampico, Mexico ' . . 275 

Tariffs 232, 235 

Tarma, Peru 212 

Tegucigalpa, Honduras ..217, 267 
Textiles — 

Bales 473, 474, 487 

Book cloths 481 

Case lining 473 

Cases 474, 482, 485 

Chicken wire in bales . . .482, 484 
Criticism of American pack- 
ing 474, 475, 476, 477 

English methods 

475, 476, 477, 478 



PAGE 

Textiles — continued 

General considerations 

470, 471, 472 

Hosiery 481 

Knit goods 481 

Parcel post shipments .... 482 

Silks 482, 483, 484 

Strapping cases . . . .473, 485, 486 

Tin lining 473, 483, 487 

War Department Specifica- 
tions 474 

Waterproofing 

473, 482, 484, 485, 486 

Three Way Corner 66, 147 

Threshing machines 383 

Tin plate 430, 431 

Tin in export packing 

43, 44, 64, 96, 417, 508, 
551, 552, 558, 559, 659, 

677, 678 

Tinned Goods — 

Biscuits 532 

Cereals 531 

Confectionery 533, 534 

Crackers 532 

Economy of space 520 

Flour 537, 538 

General considerations . . 519, 520 

Graphite products 525 

Hops 539, 540 

Lard 534, 537, 646 

Miscellaneous goods 527 

Oils 525, 526, 527, 537 

Paints 521, 522, 525 

Pharmaceutical products .... 

538, 539 

Pilfering 527 

Preservation of labels .... 528 
Printing inks . ,540, 543, 544, 545 
Square tins vs. round tins . . 

520, 527 

War Department Specifica- 
tions 520 

Tires, automobile 

..600, 663, 664, 665, 666, 669 

Tobacco 584 

Tobago 250 

Toys 560 

Tractors — 

Boxed assembled 390 

Construction of cases 391 

Crates 396 

Dissembling 

...391, 395, 396, 399, 400, 403 
General considerations .... 389 

Instruction sheets 392 

Markings 396 



INDEX 



723 



PAGE 

Tractors — continued 

Protection 395 

Slushing 399 

"Trade Descriptions Act of 

Australia," 241, 242, 243, 244 

Trinidad 250, 302 

Tripoli 297 

Trujillo, Honduras 217 

Tunis 298 

Two-Trip package 616, 665 

Tyloses 198 

Typewriters . . . ' 514, 517 

Uganda 298 

Union of South Africa 299 

United Kingdom, 299, 300, 301, 302 
Uruguay 301 

Valencia, Venezuela 302 

Valparaiso, Chile 216 

Venezuela ..302, 468, 478, 680, 709 

Ventilating cases 95, 96 

Vera Cruz, Mexico 275 

War Department — 

Baling 149 

Bands for bales 82 

Boxing specifications 116 

Crating specifications 143 

Drums 615 

Export packing in boxes, 119, 347 

Goods in tins 520 

Hardware in barrels 583 

Incandescent lamps 461 

Lumber 127 

Marking specifications ....'. 152 

Naked shipments 611, 612 

Packing machinery 333, 341 

Packing wool or hair .... 474 

Paper 657 

Parcel post 691 

Photographic materials 468 

Protection of bright parts 337 

Savings by baling 77 

Savings by shrinking pack- 
age 324 



PAGE 

War Department — continued 

Shovels 603 

Size of bale 81 

Steel pipe 607 

Waterproof paper 62, 83 

Wire-bound boxes 118 

Watches 675, 676, 677, 706 

Water meters 418 

Waterproofing — 

Automobiles 317 

Bales 83, 150 

Cartoned goods 551 

Cases 91, 92, 95, 96, 119 

Cases to Australia 29 

Deck cargo 628 

General need of 62 

Leather 658 

Method of lining cases, 119, 120 

Parcel post 694 

War Department paper . . . 62, 63 

Waterproof papers 63 

Weighing apparatus 414 

Weighing goods 39 

Weights — 

Legal, net, gross 235, 236 

Machinery 343 

On cases 23, 34 

See different chapters. 
See various countries. 

Willemstadt, Curagao 260 

Windmills 385 

Windward Islands 250 

Wire 431, 581, 606, 607, 608 

Wire-bound boxes 118 

Wire for strapping, 107, 139, 140 

Wire nails 578 

Wire netting 646 

Wire -stitching machinery 361 

Wire-worTcing machinery ..... 362 
Writing inks 452, 455 

Yunnan 254 

Zanzibar 303 

Zeyla, British Somaliland 250 

Zinc lining 678 



